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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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SB 191 
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STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
BULLETIN No. 320 



Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry 
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief 



Washington, D. C. 



January 24, 1916 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION 

OF CORN 



By 

H, R. CATES, Scientific Assistant 
Office of Farm Management 



CONTENTS 



Introduction 

Gênera! Statement 

Economie Factors Influencing Tillage 
Acreage and Crop Yields , . , . . 
Subsoiling, Drainage, and Tillage before 

• Plowing 11 

Piowing ... o . 13 



Page 

1 

3 

8 

10 



Page 

Tillage Implements Used after Plowing 
and before Planting 17 

Methods of Planting and Einds of Plant- 
ers Used 18 

Planting, Replanting, and Hand Cultiva- 
tion 21 

General Farm Practices and Conditions 22 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1916 



Monograpfc 



D. of D. 
FEB 24 f916 



G°> 






UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 




BULLETIN No. 320 

jgr Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry ^1 

^Z^'^St, WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief S&7*' < &J-U 




Washington, D. C. 



January 24, 1916 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 

By H. R. Cates, Scientifie Assistant, Office of Farm Management. 1 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction 

General statement 

Economie factors influencing tillage 

Acreage and crop yields 

Subsoiling, drainage, and tillage before 

plowing 

Plowing 



Page. 
1 

3 
8 
10 



Page. 
Tillage implements used after plowing and 

before planting 17 

Methods of planting and kinds of planters 

used 18 

Planting, replanting, and hand cultivation. . 21 

General farm practices and conditions 22 



INTRODUCTION. 

The subject of tillage is one upon which much fundamental in- 
formation is } r et to be supplied. Numerous tillage experiments hâve 
been concluctecl by varions agricnltnral experiment stations, but a 
compilation of the results of thèse experiments shows that no gên- 
erai conclusions can be drawn from them; in fact, the results in dif- 
férent States seriously conflict. This is probably due to the fact that 
the experiments hâve been conducted upon différent types of soil and 
under other widely varying conditions, as well as to the fact that in 
many cases experiments hâve not been repeated a sufficient number 
of times to justify conclusions, even locally. Further, the experi- 
ments hâve usually been designed to find out the most productive 
practices, whereas the farmer is interested in the most profitable 
practice. 

Previous studies, reported in Bulletin 257 of the Bureau of Plant 
Industry, 2 hâve shown that the principal object of intertillage in 

1 The Office of Farm Management was transferred from the Bureau of Plant Industry 
to the Office of the Secretary on July 1, 1915. The work upon which this paper is based 
was done and the manuscript was submitted and its publication arranged before the 
transfer took place. 

2 Cates, J. S., and Cox, H. R. The weed factor in the cultivation of corn. U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 257, 35 p., 10 fig. 1912. 

Note. — This bulletin gives the results of an extensive study of cultural practice with 
corn and should be of interest to farmers in ail régions where corn is grown, 
8504°— Bull. 320—10 1 






BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. <>) X JsRj> 



growing a crop of corn is the élimination of weeds, but thèse studies 
gave no information as to the reason for the great variation in tillage 
practices prevailing in the différent sections of the country. It was 
quite natural, therefore, that the work originally undertaken should 
lead to a study of thèse variations in local practices, with a view to 
ascertaining the fondamental causes of existing différences, and of 
determining whether thèse différences were due merely to différence 
in the weeds which must be combated or to différence in économie 
conditions in the varions agricultural sections of the country. 

The fact that the local practice in the préparation of the seed bed 
for corn varies as widely as do the local practices with référence to 
intertillage itself suggested that the différences in methods of inter- 
tillage were due not merely to différences in the weed population. 
It was therefore decided to extend the study so as to include local 
practices in the varions agricultural régions having to do with the 
préparation of the seed bed, as well as the intertillage of the corn 
crop. It was recognized that on the average the farmers in the dif- 
férent agricultural areas had worked ont methods of tillage which 
were at least fairly satisfactory under their conditions, and it was 
therefore believed that a study of thèse varions methods which hâve 
proved profitable through long expérience in various localities, and 
studies of the conditions under which they prevailed, might lead to 
the discovery of the factors which control différences in local prac- 
tice. As will be seen in the following pages, tins expectation was 
fully realized. 

Thèse studies were made in selected régions (fig. 1) which include 
in a gênerai way ail important corn-growing sections of the country. 
In selecting thèse régions it was the aim to choose those having con- 
ditions and methods which are représentative of large areas. The 
studies herein set forth, therefore, give the reader a broad, gênerai 
idea of the tillage methods actually employed in corn growing. Inci- 
dentally, the yields related thereto are also given. 

In ail, 21 régions were covered. About 25 représentative farms 
were studied in each région. A record was taken from each farmer 
visited, showing in détail his tillage practices with corn and also the 
gênerai practices and conditions on his farm. The detailed results 
of thèse studies are presented in tabular forai. The gênerai infor- 
mation is first presented and then the tillage data. 

The records for each région were tabulated and the averages as 
presented in Tables I and II will give the reader a good gênerai idea 
of farming conditions in the régions under discussion. Other tables 
are presented which relate to plowing, planting, subsoiling, and mis- 
cellaneous tillage opérations. 

A table relating entirely to tillage is given for each section. This 
table shows in détail the tillage opérations for corn after plowing 






FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN". 3 

and beïore planting, and also gives in détail the tillage opérations 
after planting. In addition to thèse tables a description is given 
of each section stndied, discussing the gênerai conditions and cus- 
toms found there. 

It is not improbable that tillage methods found in some sections 
of the country could, to a greater or less extent, be profitably em- 
ployée! in other sections. In this publication, however, we are con- 
cerned merely with setting i'orth the findings on actual tillage 
methods employed by représentative corn growers in the areas 
studied, and no attempt lias been made to make recommendations 
based on the results of thèse studies. 



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Fir;. 1. — Outline map of the United States, showing the distribution of corn production by 
States, each small black dot representing a yield of 10,000,000 bushels (census of 1910). 
The counties and States in which the régional corn-tillage surveys 'wero made are indi- 
cated by key letters showing locations, as follows : A=Tipton, Ind. ; B=Montgomery, 
Ohio : C=Mercer, N. J. ; D=Moultrie, 111. ; E=^Tama, Iowa ; F=Kalamazoo, Mich. ; 
G=Maury, Tenn. : H=Hartford, Conn. ; I=Bradford, Pa. ; J=Christian, Ky. ; K=Ham- 
ilton, Nebr. ; L=Rockwall and Grayson, Tes. ; M=Scotland, N. C. ; N=Augusta, 
Va. ; 0=Waushara, Wis. ; P=Bates, Mo. : Q=Alexander, N. C. ; R=Oklahoma, Okla. ; 
S=Pike, Ala. ; T=Holnies, Miss. ; U=Russell, Kans. 

The illustrations in this bulletin are given simply as types of ma- 
chines and are not designed to show any particular make. There 
are many machines on the market which may be utilized with per- 
fectly satisfactory results for the various farm opérations illus- 
trated and described. 

GENERAL STATEMENT. 

The subject of tillage of corn can properly be divided into two 
parts. The first lias to do with the préparation of the seed bed, 
and the second with the cultivation of the groAving crop. Both in 
the préparation of the seed bed and in intertillage the prevailing con- 



4 BULLETIN" 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

ditions with référence to farm labor and farm capital are the prin- 
cipal factors in determining différences in practice. In the prépara- 
tion of the seed bed the soil type is also an important factor, while 
in intertillage the types of weeds to be dealt with hâve mnch to do 
with prevailing practices. The reason why greater variation in re- 
sults is not shown for the différent methods and amounts of inter- 
tillage is that, in the main, ail the practices studied were adéquate 
for Aveed control in the growing crop in the régions where thèse 
practices are employed. (Table I.) 

Previous investigations hâve shown that if weeds are eliminated, 
any sort of intertillage becomes of minor considération. 1 The whole 
subject, therefore, is far more largely of économie than of agronomie 
importance. What the farmer wants to know conceming seed-bed 
préparation is : What is the cheapest method of making an adéquate 
seed bed under his conditions? An adéquate seed bed may be de- 
fined as land free from Aveeds and surface trash, sufficiently mellow to 
permit easy pénétration of the plant roots, sufficiently compact to 
hold moisture and to be free from large air spaces, and sufficiently 
fine in texture to bring many soil particles in contact with the seed 
and thus to supply an abundance of moisture to the germinating 
plant. Land so prepared is also in good condition for subséquent 
tillage. What lie Avants to know conceming intertillage is: What is 
the cheapest method of controlling Aveeds which infest his growing 
crops ? 

Table I. — Summary of tillage practices with corn, showing the averages of depth 
of plowing, nutnber of cultivations, price of land, commercial fertiliser used, 
(nul normal yields per acre in twenty-one régions of the United States. 






Région covered (flg. 1). 



Key 
letter, 



County and State. 



Tipton,Ind 

Montgomery, Ohio 

Mercer ; N. j 

Moultne, 111 

Tama, Iowa 

Kalamazoo, Mich 

Maury , Tenn 

Hartford, Conn 

Bradford, Pa 

Christian, Ky 

Hamilton, Nebr 

Rockwall and Grayson 

Tex 

Scotland, N.C 

Augusta, Va 

Waushara, Wis 

Bâtes, Mo 

Alexander, N. C 

Oklahoma, Okla 

Pike, Ala 

Holmes, Miss 

Russell, Kans 



Depth 

of 
plow- 
ing. 



IncJies. 
6.7 
7.1 
6.3 
5.4 
S.l 
6.7 
7.7 
7.4 
6.1 
7.1 
5.8 

6.4 
7.0 
8.0 
5.5 
5.9 
6.0 
5.6 
6.7 
5.1 
5.5 



AA r orkings 

after 

plowing 

and 

before 

planting. 



2.8 
3.6 
3.5 
3.2 
3.0 
3.3 
2.7 
2.4 
2.5 
3.0 
2.5 

1.5 
2.3 
3.0 
1.8 
2.3 
1.1 
1.5 
.6 
1.4 




Cultiva- 
tions 
after 

planting. 



5.5 
4.0 
5.9 
4.4 
5.3 
5.0 
5.4 
3.8 
4.4 
5.1 
5.1 

3.9 
4.3 
4.1 

5.4 
4.8 
5.1 
3.9 
4.7 
4.7 
3. S 



Price 
of land 
per acre. 



$209. 48 
146. 96 
101.87 
198.30 
196. 40 
101.40 
110.38 
138. 80 
51.20 
69.04 
158.38 

103.41 
113.50 
71.80 
48.27 
95.00 
39.14 
50.00 
36.50 
22.40 
43.20 



Commercial fertil- 
izer used. 



Farms 
applying. 



Per cent. 

3.4 

31.0 

78.1 









88.0 

28.6 

3.8 





100 
42.9 



78.9 


90.5 
4.0 




Applied 
per acre. 



Pounds. 
200.0 
217.2 
331.7 



727.3 
178.1 
125.0 



575.7 
161.3 



366. S 
200.0 



Normal 
yield. 



Bushels. 
57.4 
52.3 
51.1 
49.5 
46.6 
41.5 
40.9 
39.9 
38.2 
36.9 
35.0 

33.6 
33.0 
33.0 
30.4 
29.3 
25.2 
23.9 
23.1 
22.0 
20.4 



1 See Bureau of Plant Inclustry Bulletin No. 257, already mentioned. 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 5 

For the reasons above stated this bulletin shoulcl not be expected 
to embody a so-called best method of conducting tillage opérations 
everywhere applicable to corn growing. Such detailed information 
as is hère presented amounts, as it were, to taking the reader on a 
tour of study to visit not only his neighboring corn-raising f armers, 
but représentative corn growers in ail the important corn-producing 
régions of the United States. On such a trip one would expect to 
get ideas and suggestions to be brought home and triecl out. It would 
be unsafe to recommend for gênerai adoption in any corn-growing 
région practices which hâve ne ver been tested there, however success- 
ful such practices may hâve proved in other sections, but in many 
cases it would be highly désirable for a farmer to try methods which 
hâve elsewhere proved successful. Thèse studies, then, should be of 
great suggestive value to both experimenters and practical farmers. 

GROUPS OF CORN-GROWING AREAS. 

The régions in which surveys were made may be grouped into fi ve 
divisions, as follows: (1) The contrai western, (2) the southeastern, 
(3) the south central, (4) the southwestern, and (5) the northeastern. 
In each of thèse divisions more or less distinct methods and practices 
are employed. 

The first division includes the corn belt proper. Hère the tillage 
practices are very uniform. The land is level or gently rolling. 
Heavy teams are employed for breaking and preparing the land; 
gang plows, 2-horse checkrow planters, and 2-horse 6-shovel culti- 
vators are generally used. Corn is usually planted level and in 
checks. 

In the southeastern division, including in the main the cotton belt, 
a radically différent type of tillage is practiced. Hère mostly 1-horse 
implements are employed. Corn is usually planted in the water 
furrow between beds or in rows laid off with a lister, or middlebuster. 
In cultivating, 1-horse turning plows, cotton sweeps, and 1-horse 
cultivators are largely employed. The furrow in which the corn is 
planted is gradually filled up by cultivating until the field is prac- 
tically level at the last cultivation. 

The south-central division, composed of Tennessee, Kentucky, and 
western Xorth Carolina, is located between the corn and cotton belts 
and has tillage methods which combine practices from both régions. 
Hère little uniformity is found. 

The southwestern division, which includes northern Texas, Okla- 
homa, and western Kansas, constitutes a comparatively new agri- 
cultural région with tillage methods peculiar to that section. Most 
of the corn is listed, as is the case in ail the Southern States, but 
hère heavy teams are employed. The land is bedded with 3-horse or 
1-horse listers, accomplishing the same resuit with one furrow as the 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT ÔF AGRICULTURE. 

l-horse plows of the South Atlantic States do with four or six fur- 
rows. A combined lister and planter is often used, which breaks the 
land and plants the corn ail at one opération. Where this imple- 
ment is used, often no other préparation is given the land before the 
corn is planted. 

In the northeastern division corn is a minor crop and the tillage 
methods employed are those which are best suited to the principal 
crops grown in the région. In the New Jersey area the principal 
crop is potatoes, and in this région corn is cultivated with the same 
implements which are used for the potato crop. In Connecticut, 
where tobacco is the leading crop, the tillage methods for corn are 
those best suited for cultivating tobacco. 

TILLAGE GENERALIZATIONS. 

Subsoiling is not extensively practiced and is usually employed 
only in régions having soils low in organic matter. 

The depth of breaking land is governed largely by the type of soil 
and time of plowing. Sandy or loamy soils, unless underlain with a 
stiff subsoil, are usually plowed deeper than the heavy clay soils. 
When land is plowed in the fall it is usually broken deeper than 
when plowed in the spring. 

Listing is extensively practiced in those régions where hot, dry 
weather prevails cluring the growing season. 

Whether corn is planted in checks or drills dépends largely on the 
extent to which corn is grown, on the size and shape of the fielcls, 
nnd on the topography of the land. Where the land is level and corn 
is extensively grown it is usually planted in checks, unless listing is 
practiced. Where corn is not extensively grown and where conse- 
quently the fields are small, or where the land is rolling, drill plant- 
ing is practiced. 

The thickness of planting corn varies with the fertility of the soil. 
It is planted thickest on the most productive soils. 

On the most productive farms slightly more cultivation is given 
corn, both before and after planting, than on the less fertile soils. 
With tillage after plowing and before planting, the increased work 
for the higher yielding régions is significant. For instance, for the 
10 best régions (Table II) the average number of cultivations after 
plowing and before planting is 3, while for the 10 poorest régions 
the average is only 1.6. This, however, may be due to the fact that 
the character of the heavy clay soils of the Central West, the région 
where high normal yields most often occur, is such as to require 
more préparation than the lighter soils of other régions. Further, 
it may be that with the more fertile soils the increased yield in 
response to extra good préparation fully warrants such expenditure 
of labor. With the inherently poorer soils this may not be the case. 
To illustrate this point, we might assume that a certain percentage 



FARM PRACTÎCE IN THE CULTÎVATION OF CORN. 



of increase is caused in ail cases by this extra préparation. Suppose 
we place this increase at 10 per cent. Soils yielding normally 60 
bushels per acre would then be increased 6 bushels by such extra 
work. With soils, however, having a normal yield of only 20 bushels 
per acre the increase for the same amount of work would be but 2 
bushels. This latter amount might be too small to warrant such 
practice. 

Table II. — Corn culture in the United States, showing farm practice averages 
summarized bij divisions. 





Areaoffarms. 


Per acre. 


Fall plow- 
ing. 


Spring plow- 
ing. 


Fall and spring 
plowing. 


Régions covered 
(fig. 1). 


Total. 


Culti- 
vated. 


Priée of 
land. 


Normal 
yield. 


Farm- 
ers 
prac- 
tic- 
ing. 


Depth. 


Farm- 
ers 

prac- 
tic- 
ing. 


Depth. 


Farm- 
ers 
prac- 
tic- 
ing. 


Depth. 




Fall. 


Spring. 


Ten régions: 

Best 


Acres. 
189.1 
294.6 


A cres. 

154. 4 
179.4 


$132. 38 
62. 32 


Bushrts. 
45.4 
27.4 


P. et. 
24.0 
17.2 


In. 

6.6 
7.0 


P. et. 

73. S 
72.6 


In. 
6.4 
5.7 


P. d. 

2.1 
10. 2 


In. 

8.2 
7.8 


iTl. 

6.0 




4. S 






Average of ail... 


242.7 


170.3 


100. 25 


36.3 


20.0 


6.8 


74.1 


6.0 


5.9 


7.9 


5.1 


Divisions: 

Central western . . 
Northeastern 

Sontli central 

Southwestern 

Southeastern 


176.4 
104.2 
343.0 
380. 5 
334.7 


150.6 
80.1 
248. 7 
231. 9 
194.6 


167. 42 
97.29 
72. 85 
65.54 
57.46 


45.0 
43.1 
34.3 
26.0 
26.0 


21.1 
19.2 
35. 9 

12.4 
2.9 


6.1 
6.6 
7.0 
5.9 
9.0 


78.9 

so. S 
45.2 
71.5 
91.1 


5.9 
6.5 

6.7 
5.3 
5.4 




18.9 

16.1 
6.0 





s. 1 
6.5 

S. 7 






5.3 

5.9 

4.3 




îg. 1). 




Cultivations given. 


Area per horse. 


Farmers 

practic- 

ing hand 

labor. 


Cost of labor. 


Régions covered (1 


After 

plowing 

and 

before 

planting. 


A fter 
planting. 


( 

1 


•ull i- 
*ated 
and. 


Inter- 
tilled 
crop. 


Per day. 


Per 

month. 


Ten régions: 

Best 


3 
1.6 


4.9 
4.5 


Acres. 
24.4 

28.4 


Acres. 
6.6 
14.5 


Per cent. 
39.8 
56. 9 


$1.39 
1.09 


$24. 14 




21. 45 












2.3 


4.6 


26.4 


10.5 


46.4 


1.25 


23.55 










Divisions: 


2.9 
2.8 
2.3 
1.0 
1.4 


4.8 
4.7 
5.2 
3.9 
4.6 


21.6 
21.0 
35.9 
27.7 
26.9 


7.9 
5.0 
9.0 
1;V 7 
21.7 


28.8 
71.4 
41.6 
43.4 
73.2 


1.53 
1.49 

.76 
1.38 

.71 


27.49 




25.04 




17.69 




25. 00 




12.41 





























It is shown in Table II that in the régions making the highest 
yield of corn the least handwork is done. It is not thought, however, 
that there is any relation between the amount of hand labor and the 
yield of corn. Where the topography of a région is level and corn 
is grown in large acreages in a field, it is usually planted in checks 
and cultivated in alternate directions. Where this is done, very little 
hand labor is employed. Where the fields are small or where the 
land is rolling, checkrowing is not as a rule practiced. In this case 
hand labor is more extensively employed. Hand labor, therefore, 
compared with yield must be considered merely as an associated 
rather than a related factor. 



8 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

YIELD FACTORS OTHER THAN TILLAGE. 

In such a study as this it is impossible to measure the effect of 
ti liage in terms of yield. This is true, for the reason that tillage is 
only one of the many factors which hâve to do with yield, and while 
yields are, for the most part, given in connection with thèse studies, 
it is firmly believed that the yields are far more closely related to 
the inhérent fertility of the soil and to the gênerai farm practices 
than to tillage. 

The variations in yields, both régional and on individual farms 
in a given région, show but scant corrélation to variations in tillage 
practice. There is, however, a striking corrélation between yields 
and type of farming. Yields in the main in the différent régions are 
in inverse ratio to the area of improved land which is in intertilled 
crops. In some of the régions surveyed other factors enter which 
affect crop yields, and in those régions this relation between the yield 
of corn and the area of intertilled crops does not exist. Such con- 
ditions are found in Scotland County, N. C, and Hartford County, 
Conn., where large quantities of commercial fertilizer are usecl, and 
in Augusta County, Va., and Bradford County, Pa., where the land 
is rolling or rough and corn is grown mostly on the bottom lands 
with hay and pasture on the hillsides. However, notwithstanding 
thèse factors, when the régions included in this study are arranged 
in order of rank in yield, the first 10 show but 29.5 per cent of 
improved land in intertilled crops, with a yield of 45.4 bushels of 
corn per acre, while the renia inder show an average of 52 per cent 
of the improved land intertilled, with a yield of only 27.4 bushels of 
corn per acre* Again, it is well known that in a large measure hay 
and pasture enter into the rotation to supplément intertilled crops. 
In other words, far more than for tillage, yields of corn tend to vary 
directly with the extent to which crops adding organic matter to the 
soil — hay and pasture crops — enter into the rotation. 

ECONOMIC FACTORS INFLUENCING TILLAGE. 

In Table I, as in ail the gênerai tables, the areas surveyed are 
placed in the order of bushel yield of corn per acre, starting with 
the area having the highest yield. The only direct bearing of Tables 
II and III on tillage is in showing the acreage of cultivated land and 
of intertilled crops per horse for the régions studied. The other mat- 
ter presented, however, does hâve an important indirect bearing on 
the subject of tillage, in that it gives the reader a gênerai knowledge 
of existing farm conditions. This information is necessary to a 
proper interprétation of the purely tillage data presented in subsé- 
quent tables. 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



9 



Table III shows that in the régions where land is less expensive 
and labor cheap the farms are large, with a small percentage of the 
land under cultivation. Where land is more expensive the farms are 
smaller, with a larger percentage of it under cultivation. Of the 
régions surveyed, the 10 having the highest priced land hâve an 
average farm size of 201 acres, with 80 per cent of the farm land 
tillable. For the 10 régions having the lowest priced land, the aver- 
age farm size is 291 acres, with only 63 per cent of the farm land 
tillable. 



Table III. — Xumber of farm projects surveyed, area in farms, average aereage 
per head of lire stock, and average eost of farm labor in tirentg-one régions 
of Ihe United States. 



Région covered (fig. 1). 


Date of 
survey. 


s 
« 

M 

a 

■v 

u 
o 
o 


Average land per 
farm. 


Average 

cultivated 

land per 

head. 


Average 

land per 

horse. 


Average 

priée of 

farm labor. 


CB 

ce 

>, 

O) 

M 


County and State. 


"3 

O 


•6 

OS 

> 


» 
d 

II 

es 

> 


C3 
O 


O 

H 


o 

o 


— 

CD 

§s 

a 


T3 

O 

Ph 


Â 

a 
o 

a 

(S 


A 
B 
C 
D 
E 
F 
G 
H 
I 
J 
K 
L 

M 
N 

P 


Tipton, Ind 

Montgcmery, Ohio 

Mercer, N. j 

Moidtrie, 111 

Tama, lowa 

Kalamazoo, Mich. 

Maury, Tenn 

Hartford, Conn ... 

Bradford, Pa 

Christian, Ky 

Hamilton, Nebr... 

Rockwalland Gray- 

son, Tex 

Augusta, Va 

Waushara, Wis . . . 


July, 1913 
do 

Aug.,1913 
Oct., 1912 
Aug., 1914 
Oct., 1913 
Nov., 1913 
Oct., 1913 
Sept., 1913 
No V., 1913 
June, 1913 

Apr., 1913 
Nov., 1912 
Sept.,1913 
June, 1913 
Aug., 1914 
Nov. 1913 
May, 1913 
Mnr., 1913 
Apr., 1913 
Aug., 1914 


29 
29 
32 
59 
25 
26 
15 
25 
28 
26 
25 

24 
38 
28 
26 
25 
14 
21 
21 
25 
25 


Acres. 
184.6 

86.5 
109.6 
192.9 
148.8 
172.8 
389.0 

93.5 
109.4 
404.0 
201.0 

271.6 
274.1 
209.4 
170.4 
184.8 
230. 
214.9 
328.4 
401.8 
655.0 


Acres. 
153.0 
76.3 
93.8 
177.6 
109.7 
138.9 
303.3 
62.7 
83.7 
345.0 
240.0 

230.4 
170.8 
142.6 
126.8 
146.8 
97.8 
134.3 
198.0 
215.0 
331.0 


$209. 48 
146. 96 
101. 87 
198. 30 
190. 40 
101.40 
110.38 
138. 80 
51.20 
69.04 
158. 38 

103. 41 
113.50 
71.80 
48.27 
95.00 
39.14 
50.00 
36.50 
22.40 
43.20 


Acres. 

7.8 

9.8 

10.3 

24.7 

4.6 

20.3 

7.1 

4.0 

6.3 

29.2 

13.3 

41.3 
37.6 

9.2 
14.0 

8.1 
14.6 
13. 3 
20.8 
11.7 

7.0 


Acres. 
2.2 
2.4 
21.5 
11.3 
1.6 
4.3 
7.6 
2.2 
16.8 
7.0 
3.1 

25.0 
14.4 
14.2 
14.4 

3.1 
13.8 

4.8 

5.8 
18.9 

7.7 


Acres. 
21.9 
17.9 
17.0 
18.4 
18.8 
28.6 
40.3 
17.8 
28.3 
34.9 
27.4 

30.9 
24.7 
33.8 
30.8 
23.3 
32. 6 
23.1 
31.3 
24.7 
29.0 


Acres. 
7.4 
6.2 
6.9 
8.8 
7.5 
5.7 
7.2 
5.4 
2.6 
8.5 
9.6 

17.6 

19.3 

4.7 

8.9 

8.0 

11.2 

15.0 

24.2 

21.7 

14.5 


$1.21 
1.42 
1.50 
1.18 
2.00 
1.50 
.75 
1.68 
1.30 

1.94 

1.12 

.75 

1.08 

1.34 

1.45 

.77 

1.12 

.71 

.69 

1.90 


$24.90 
19.00 
26. 46 
28.67 
33.68 
24.67 
17.95 
26.67 
22.00 
17.43 
34.44 

25.00 

10.40 
31.11 
24.25 


Q 
R 

S 
T 
U 


Alexander, N. C. . 
Oklahoma, Okla. . 

Pike, Ala 

Holmes, Miss 

Russell, Kans 


22.92 
14.13 
10. 69 
27.10 



The number of cattle and hogs found in a région is undoubtedly 
governed by the available pastures and the price of feeds. Where 
good pastures abound and where grain and hay can be produced 
cheaply more cattle and hogs are found. 

Less aereage is worked per horse in the régions where improved 
implements and heavy teams are employed than in the régions where 
small teams and 1 -horse implements predominate. This is probably 
due partly to the fact that in the Central West, where a small aereage 
is worked per horse, many coïts are raised, and extra mares are kept 
on the farm for this purpose. The fact that larger yields of crops 
are made and more live stock kept on the farms in the Middle West 
where thèse heavy horses and implements are used maires also for a 

8504°— Bull. 320— 1G 2 



10 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



greatly increased amount of work other than tillage. Labor, how- 
ever, is more efficient and a greater acreage is cultivated per man 
where more horses and better equipment are used. The quality of 
labor available, the type of farming, and the topography of the land 
largely régula te the size of teams to be used. With very cheap labor, 
1-horse implements may be more economical than heavier imple- 
nients, since slightly more land is worked with two 1-horse teams 
than with one 2-horse team. 

The cost of labor given is the average of what the farmers inter- 
viewed actually pay. "Where cheap labor is available crops which 
require much hand labor predominate. 

ACREAGE AND CROP YIELDS. 

Table IV gives the reader a gênerai idea of the types of farming 
practiced in each région surveyed. The normal acreages and normal 
crop yields, as shown, represent the averages for the farms visited 
in each région. 

Table IV. — Normal average acreage per far») ami yield per acre of varions 
crops on the farms surveyed in tirent ij-onc régions of the United States. 



Région covered (fig. 1). 



Corn. 



Oats. 



Wheat. 



Hay. 



County and State. 



Per 
farm. 



Tipton, Ind 

Montgomery, Ohio 

Mercer, N. J 

Moultrie.Ill 

Tama, Iowa 

Kalamazoo, Mich 

Maury, Tenn 

Hartford, Conn 

Bradford, Pa 

Christian, Ky 

Hamilton, Nebr 

Rockwall and Grayson, Tex 

Scotland, N. C 

Augusta, Va 

Waushara, Wis 

Bâtes, Mo 

Alexander, N. C 

Oklahoma, Okla 

Pike, Ala 

Holmes, Miss 

Etussell, Kans 



Acres. 
52.1 
20.4 
18.0 
83.5 
44.0 
27.6 
54.4 
9.3 
7.8 
55.4 
83.8 
40.8 
40.0 
20.0 
18.3 
49.0 
25.3 
47.2 
56.0 
112.5 
125.0 



Yield 
per 
acre. 



Per 
farm. 



Bushels 
57.4 
52.3 
51.1 
49.3 
46.6 
41.5 
40.9 
39.9 
38.2 
36.9 
35.0 
33.6 
33.0 
33.0 
30.4 
29.3 
25.2 
23.9 
23.1 
22.0 
20.4 



Acres. 

24.1 

6.1 



28.7 
26.6 
19.9 
26.1 
1.4 
9.1 
25.0 
19.0 
49.7 
3.0 



16.4 
21.4 

7.0 
16.7 
10.0 

4.0 



Yield 
per 



Ter 
farm. 



Bushels 
51.0 
40.4 



41.2 
35.5 
37.2 
31.7 
30.0 
30.0 
30.0 
28.7 
45.6 
49.7 



22. i 
29^0 
10.5 
31.5 
35.7 
25.0 



A cres. 
19.6 
17.5 
7.1 
6.2 



39.4 
72.0 



2.5 
111.6 
77.0 
41.7 



37.1 



24.9 
19.1 

9.9 



185. 



Yield 
per 



Per 
farm. 



Bushels 
21.4 
21.8 
24.2 
21.2 
20.0 
19.8 
18.5 



20.6 
16.8 
23.5 
18.9 



^Icres. 
35.3 
16.8 
24.0 
13.5 
21.5 
24.0 
47.0 
21.0 
25.0 
77.9 

«26.2 



16.0 



19.0 
11.0 
16.6 



5.3 
30.1 
17.7 
31.9 



a 17.3 



Yield 
per 
acre. 



Tons. 
1.89 
1.67 
1.79 
1.75 
1.50 
1.45 
1.57 
1.72 
1.70 
1.08 

o 3.50 



1.10 
1.01 
1.04 
1.00 



a Alfalfa. 



FAEM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



Il 



Table IV. — Normal average acreage per farm and yield per acre of varions crops 
on the farms surveyed in twenty-one régions of the United States — Contd. 



Région covered (flg. 1). 


Cotton. 


Rye. 


Potatoes. 


Tobacco. 


Pas- 
ture 
and 
ail 
other 
crops. 


o 

a 

M 


County and State. 


Per 
farm. 


Yield 
per 
acre. 


Per 
farm. 


Yield 
per 
acre. 


Per 
farm. 


Yield 
per 
acre. 


Per 
farm. 


Yield 
per 
acre. 


Per 
farm. 


A 




Acres. 


Pounds. 


Acres. 


Bushels. 


Acres. 


Bushels. 


Acres. 


Pounds. 


Acres. 
21.9 


B 
















6.0 


1,004.8 


9.5 


c 








13.1 


20.6 


17.5 


147.8 


14.1 


D 












45.7 


E 




















17.6 


F 




















28.0 


G 








3.3 
1.0 

3.2 


13.2 
18.3 
16.5 










100.5 


H 


Hartford , Conn 






1.4 


151.9 


8.3 


1,799.0 


20.3 


I 






36.1 


J 












27.3 


936.0 


47.9 


K 












34.0 


L 


Rockwall and Gray- 

son, Tex. 
Scotland, N. C 


90.7 
98.6 


720.0 
1,328.0 














7.5 


M 














23.9 


N 














55.4 











30.3 


12.3 


18.2 


110.4 






25.9 


P 












19.6 


Q 
R 


Alexander, N. C 

Oklahoma, Okla 
Pike, Ala 


8.5 
12.5 
94.8 
75.2 


794.2 
580.5 
862.5 
704.8 


8.1 


8.6 










29.8 










30.7 


S 














37.2 


T 


Holmes, Miss 














23.3 


u 














11.0 

























SUBSOILING, DRAINAGE, AND TILLAGE BEFORE PLOWING. 

Subsoiling is the process of breaking up or loosening the subsoil 
without mixing it with the topsoil. This is usually done by plowing 
a furrow with an ordinary turning plow (fig. 2) and following in 
the bottom of this furrow with a shovel or bull-tongue plow, which 
loosens the subsoil but does not bring it nearer the surface or mix 
it with the topsoil. In some sec- 
tions partial subsoiling is prac- 
ticed by running a subsoil plow 
in the bottom of the corn row 
before planting the corn, as is 
the practice in Scotland County, 
N. C, and Pike County, Ala. 
The results of subsoiling pre- 
sented in Table V clearlv show 
that this practice is not extensive and is usually carried on only in 
régions which hâve soils low in organic matter. 

The amount of data available in regard to subsoiling is so limited 
that no definite conclusions can be drawn. Table V présents a digest 
of the opinions of farmers concerning the effect of subsoiling on the 
crop yield, showing the percentage of those who hâve practiced it, 
the season when it is usually done, and the average depth. Opinions 
were recorded from some farmers who had not practiced subsoiling. 




Fig. 2. — A 2-horse turning plow, a type of im- 
plement used throughout the corn-growing 
States. 



12 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



It is interesting to note that thèse opinions vary with the différent 
kinds of soil. Where there is a sandy or loamy soil imderlain with 
a heavy clay subsoil, as in Maury County, Tenn., the practice of sub- 
soiling is popular. Where the subsoil is of a loamy character, as in 
Christian County. Ky.. the practice is not considered profitable. 



Table V.- 



-Corn culture in regard to subsoiling, drainage, and tillage before 

plowing in twenty-one régions of the United States. 



Région covered (fig. 1). 


Subsoiling. 


Drainage (farmers 
reporting). 


Tillage before plowing. 




County and State. 


o 

03 
M 

& . 

tu 

g 
(S 

p4 


1 


& 
s 
•a 

o3 
t-< 
P 


Far mers 
reporting — 


O 

È 


■6 
| 

S 

fi 


13 

< 


ci» 

03 

*~fci 
m a 

O) 

a 

u 
03 


Farmers using — 


CJ 

\4 


o 


1 
ta 


3 
o . 


03 . 

M o 

fi 


03 
U 

M 
O 


n 




Per 
cent. 




In. 


Per 
cent. 


Per 
cent. 


Per 
cent. 


Per 
cent. 


Per 

cent. 
100 
100 

46.9 
100 

20.0 


Per 

cent. 

3.4 

3.4 

3.1 

44.0 

32.0 


Per 
cent. 

3.4 


Per 
cent. 
3.4 
3.4 
3.1 
40.7 
32.0 


7 J er 
cent. 


R 


Montgomery, Ohio 
Mereer, N. J 




..: : 












r 










21.9 




r> 










3.4 






F 










36.0 
34.6 
93.3 
68.0 
67.9 
38.5 
4.0 

87.5 
«79.0 

85.6 
«30. 

32.0 
100 

9.5 
100 

60.0 

40.0 


44.0 
3.8 
6.7 

12.0 
7.1 




F 














Tr 


Maury, Tenn 


40.0 


Fall. 


12 


33.3 














H 


20.0 










T 






i 














J 
K 


Christian, Ky 


15.4 


Fall. 


12 





11.5 




3.8 
76.0 


24. Ô 


3.8 
72.0 




L 


Rockwall and 


















M 

N 


Scotland, N. C 
Augusta, Va 


5.3 
3. G 


Fall. 
...do.... 


11 

12 


15.8 
3.6 


5.3 
3.6 


18.0 
14.3 




103 


79.0 


50.0 




o 












F 




4.0 


Spring. 


14 


4.0 




8.0 




44.0 
7.1 
9.5 
71.4 
32.0 
60.0 


9.5 
71.4 
16.0 


44.0 
7.1 




Q 






R 








4.8 


4.8 
4.0 








S 


Pike, Ala 

Holmes, Miss 


33.3 
4.0 


Spring. 


10 
11 










T 






20.0 
60.0 


4 


TT 





























a Open ditches. 

Three principal types of drainage are practiced in the areas sur- 
veyed, namely, surface drainage, open ditches, and tiling. Surface 
drainage is practiced mostly in the rolling areas and where the soils 
are low in organic matter. The principal object of such drainage 
is to prevent érosion. This is accomplished by shallow surface 
ditches or terraces, which convey the surface water from the fields. 
Thèse ditches are run with the contours and hâve enough fall to 
convey the water rapidly, but not enough to cause érosion. The 
terraces hâve less fall than the ditches and the water is conveyed 
more slowly. Occasionally surface ditches are employed in the bot- 
tom lands to carry off the surface water. In some areas the rolling 
lands are drained by surface ditches and the bottom lands tile 
drained, as in Tama County, Iowa. 

In Scotland County, N. C, and a part of Waushara County, Wis., 
the low lands are drained by deep, open ditches which surround the 
fields. Thèse ditches collect the seepage water and answer the same 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



13 




Fig. 3. — A stalk cutter. This implement is 
used, before plowing, for chopping up 
stalks and other vegetable matter on tbe 
land. 



purpose as tile drains, but occupy much land that might be culti- 
vated if tiling were used. It is probable that this land will be tiled 
when the relative value of the land occupied by the open 
ditches is equal to the cost of the tiles. 

Tile drainage is practiced extensively only on the most 
productive soils where land values are extremely high, as 
in the corn belt of Indiana and 
Illinois. 

Tillage before plowing is prac- 
ticed most often to break up the 
stalks left from the previous 
crop. Where the stalks (mostly 
cotton and corn) grow rank, 
better plowing can be done and 
this vegetable matter decays 
more quickly if broken up be- 
fore plowing. Thèse stalks are 
usually eut with a disk harrow 
or stalk cutter (fig. 3). In a few 
localities tillage before plowing 
is practiced to conserve moisture 
and to prevent the land from 
breaking up cloddy, as in western Kansas, where the land is har- 
rowed with a disk in the spring and the corn is planted with a lister 
without further préparation. 

PLOWING. 

The choice of time for plowing, whether in the fall or spring, is 
governed largely by the character of the crop which occupies the 
land the previous year and by the type of soil. When corn f ollows sod, 

more land is generally plowed 
in the fall than when corn fol- 
lows some cultivated crop. When 
land is plowed in the fall it is 
usually broken deeper than when 
plowed in the spring. 

In some sections corn land is 
plowed in the fall and replowed 
in the spring before planting. 
This practice is recorded in 
Table VI under " Fall and spring plowing." In a few sections 
the land is sometimes plowed in the fall and then listed in the 
spring with either a middle buster (fig. 4) or a combined lister and 
planter (fig. 15), which is almost équivalent to rebreaking. This 
practice is quite gênerai in the Texas and Oklahoma areas and to 
some extent in the Kansas area. 




Fig. 4. — A lister, or middle buster, an im- 
plement extensively used in the south- 
western corn States. 



14 



BULLETIN" 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Table VI. — Préparation for corn, showing farm practices in regard to finies and 
<lci)fii of plowing and the use of plows of varions sises in ttoenty-one régions 
of the United States. 

[The key letters under "Région covered" refer to counties and States as follows: A=Tipton, Ind.; B= 
Montgomery, Ohio; C=Mercer, N. J.; D=Moultrie, 111.; E=Tama, Iowa; F=Kalarnazoo, Mich.î 
G=Maurv, Tenu.; H= Hartford, Conn.; I=Bradford, Pa.; J= Christian, Ky.; K=Hamilton, Nebr.; 
L=Rockwall and Gravson, Tex.; M=Scotland, N. C; N=Augusta, Va.; 0=Waushara, Wis.; P= 
Bâtes, Mo.; Q=Alexander, N. C: R=Oklahoma, Okla.; S=Pike, Ala.: T= Holmes, Miss.; U= 
Russell, Kans.] 



S 
> 


Fall plowing. 


Spring plowing. 


Fall and 
spring plow- 
ing. 


Farmers 
turning 

furrows — 


Farmers using plows 

drawn by — 


ô 

03 
\~ 

u 

03 


Month. 


•a 

s 

M 

a 

ÇJ 

< 


c 

a 
E 

P« . 
si 

.1 

g S 


Month. 


À 

■n 

<0 
M 
03 
u 

(S 

> 

< 


o 

03 
fc/3 

».s 

u o 
aj -m 

a" 


Average 
depth. 


> 

O 


a 

a 
o 


o 

o 

fi 


Xi 


o 


o 




o 

a 

o 
'3b 
<s 


"3 


.a 

a 
m 


o 


A 


P.C. 

24.1 
10.3 

28.1 

32.2 
12. 
3.8 

46.7 
8.0 

21.4 
53.8 

8.0 
33.3 



28.6 
50.0 
40.0 

7.1 



4.8 

4.0 

4.0 


Nov 

Nov., Dec. 
...do 

Sept., Oct. 

Oct 

...do 

Sept., Nov. 

Oct 

Oct., Nov. 
Nov 

Oct., Dec. 
Sept., Dec. 


In. 
6.5 
7.5 
6.3 

5.7 
5.0 
7.0 
7.9 
7.0 
6.7 
' 7.2 
6.0 
6.8 


P.C. 

75.9 
89.7 
71.9 

67.8 
88.0 
96.2 
40.0 
92.0 
78.6 
38 5 
92.0 
37.5 
94.7 
71.4 
50.0 
60.0 
57.2 
81.0 
90.5 
88.0 
96.0 


Mar., Apr. 
Mar.-May. 
Jan., Mar., 

Apr. 
Apr.,Mav- 

...do 

...do 

Mar 

Apr.,Mav. 

...do 

Apr 

Mar., Apr. 
Jan.,Feb.. 
Jan.-Apr. . 

...do 

May 


In. 
6.7 
7.4 
6.3 

5.3 


P.C. 


In. 


In. 


P.C. 

100 
96.6 
96.9 

88.1 
100 

100 


P.C. 


P.C. 


P.C. 
6.9 

27.6 
50.0 

1.7 


P.C. 

82.8 
69. o 

34. ! 

28. s 
56.0 
61.6 

40.0 

24.0 

25.0 

76.9 

4.0 

4.2 

2.6 

28.6 

50.0 

32.0 


P.C. 

6.9 
3.4 
15.6 

67.8 


P.C. 

3.4 


B 


3.4 
3.1 

11.9 






f! 










D 








1.7 


F, 


4.8 
6.6 
7.7 
7.4 
6.0 
6 6 
5.8 
5.6 
5.3 
7.8 
5.5 
5.7 
5.9 
5.1 
6.3 
4.8 
5.3 








40. 4. 


F 


13.3 


'ï.ï 








7.7 
60.0 
76. 
71.4 
23.1 


26.9 


3.8 


G 


5. 010( 








H 




100 

100 










T 


Ï.7 


9.6 






3.6 






T 


7. 1 00 






K 




100 

39.5 

100 

100 

100 
92.9 
47.6 
28.6 
12.0 
12.0 






96.0 
74.9 




L 

M 


29.2 
5.3 


6.7 7.0 
10.2, 5.0 


100 
60.5 


23.7 


25.0 

78.9 
71.4 
42.3 
12.0 
100 
42.8 
42.8 
68.0 


a 8. 3 


N 


Nov., Dec. 
Oct., Nov. 


8.6 
5.5 
6.0 
6.0 






O 










7.7 
56.0 




P 












Q 


Nov 


Mar., Apr. 
Jan.-Apr.. 
Jan.-Mar.. 
...do 

Mar., Apr. 


35. 7 
19 


7.8, 4.0 
fi 9. 4 8 


7.1 

23.8 
71.4 
88.0 
88.0 


35.7 

61.9 

40.0 




R 


57.1 


14.3 




S 


Nov 

...do 

...do 


10.0 
8.0 
5.0 


4. 8 m o 4n 




T 


8.0 


6.0! 4.0 






TT 




100 


















a Engine and gang plow. 

In sections where little vegetable matter is plowed under, a type 
of plow is often used which leaves the furrow slice on edge instead 

of compléter/ turning it over. 
Tins practice of edging the fur- 
rows is very common where 1- 
horse plows (fig. 5) are used, as 
in the hill régions of Alabama 
and Mississippi, or where middle 
busters and listers are used for 
fig. s.— a i-horse turning plow, commoniy breaking, as in Kansas, Texas. 

used for breaking land in the Southern «md Oklalioma. 

The depth of breaking land is 
largely governed by the type of soil. Sandy or loam soils, unless 
underlain with stiff subsoil, are usually broken deeper than the heavy 
clay soils. 

The size of plows used is regulated by the type of farming prac- 
ticed, the topography. the type of soil, and the gênerai prosperity 
and condition of the community. In the South Atlantic States crops 
are grown which require mnch hand labor. Loamy soils predominate 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



15 



and land is comparatively cheap. Hère 1-horse teams (fig. 6) and 
2-horse teams are largely used for plowing. In the Central Western 




Fig. 6. — Plowiny with 1-horse turning plows. Thèse implements are often used in the 
Southern States (or breaking land. 




Fig. 7. — A 2-horse turning plow with chain attached, as used in Waushara County, Wis., 
to turn a heavy growth of vegetable matter. 

States a more extensive type of farming is practiced. The land is 
level, clay soils predominate, and land values are high. Hère heavier 
teams (fig. 7) are used. 



16 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 




Pig. 8. — A spike-tooth harrow, an implement Pig. 9. — A disk harrow, an implement ex- 
in gênerai use to prépare tlie seed bed, tensively used for preparing the seed bed, 
after plowing, for corn. after plowing, for corn. 




Fig. 10. — A spring-tooth harrow, used exten- 
sively in Michigan, Penns.vlvania, and 
New Jersey in preparing the seed bed, 
after plowing, for corn. 



FiG. 11. — An acme harrow, an implement 
especially adapted for thoroughly pul- 
verizing the seed bed for corn. The 
evener is attached at A. 







Fig. 12. — A spring-tooth harrow, showing its use in preparing sandy-loam land, after 

plowing, for corn. 



FARM PKACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



17 



TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS USED AFTER PLOWING AND BEFORE 

PLANTING. 

Table VII is présentée! to show what implements are used in pre- 
paring the land for corn after plowing and to show where and to 
what extent each implement is used. The kind of implement used is 
governed by the type of farming practiced, the topography of the 
land, and the type of soil. 



"■ ,.' .*.,_ <~* *wfiÇ V 



^^'['^S.-'X^ 




~ 4 Qsè. 




P : m$&- «e*^ > 9ihxïï* m 



Fig. 13. — A plank drag. an implement used in some régions instead of a roller to prépare 

cloddy land for corn. 

The spike-tooth harrow (fig. 8) is extensively used in almost every 
région visited. 

The disk harrow (fig. 9) is also extensively used, but where the 
land is extremely rolling or 
stony the spring-tooth harrow 
(fig. 10) is more popular. The 
acme harrow (fig. 11) is used 
only on soils f ree f rom stones. 
but is well adapted for thor- 
oughly pulverizing the seed bed 
on such soils. The spring-tooth 
harrow is also often used on 
loamy soils (fig. 12). The plank 
drag (fig. 13) and roller (fig. 14) are used on soils which easily be- 
come cloddy and to compact light, porous soils. For the more pro- 
S504°— Bull. 320— 1G 3 




Fig. 14. — A land roller. an implement used 
for preparing the seed bed, and to com- 
pact light, porous soils, after plowing, 
for corn. 



18 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

ductive soils more time is given to preparing the land before planting 
than svhere the soil is less productive. 

Table VII. — Préparation of the seed bed for corn, showing tillage practices, 
implements used after plowing and before planting, and àverage number of 
worhings in twenty-one renions of the United States. 

[The key letters under "Région covered" refer to counties and States as fbllo.vs: A=Tipton, Ind.; B= 
Montgomery, Ohio; C=Mercer, N. J.; D= Moultrie, 111.; E=Tama, lova; F=Kalamazoo, MJcb..; G= 
Maurv, Tenn.; Il=IIartford, Conn.; I=Bradford, l'a.; J=Christian, Ky.; K=IIamilton, Nebr.; L= 
Rockwall and Gravson, Tex.; M=Scotland, N. C.; N = Augusta, Va.; 0=Waushara, Wis.; P= Baies, 
Mo.; Q=Alexandria, N.C.; R=Oklahoma,Okla.; S= l'ike, Ala.; T= Holmes, Miss.; U=Russell, Kans.j 







Harrow. 








To lay off rows. 














Roller. 


Plank 
drag. 


Turn- 
ing 
plow 




Othei 


îm- 














1-horse 






- 


Spike- 

tooth. 


Disk. 


Spring- 

tooth. 


Acme. 




for bed- 
ding. 


single- 

shovel 


Lister. 






«3 
















plow. 














































bi 




bi 




ci 




bi 




bi 




bi 




bi 




bi 






> 


c 




a 




a 




a 




a 




.y 




a 




.b ( 




.y 




H 




m 


a 


3 


M 


3 


M 


3 


M 


3 


ù, 


a 


a 


3 




E2 


M 


3 


M 


r§ 


M 


3 


M 


bao 
















































n 


|S 


n 


£ 


S 


£ 


H 


^ 


h' 


-ç. 


H 


£ 


H 


^ 


a 


> 


U 


•£ 


£3 




•Jj 












H 




H 
























t-* 


















































X 


Ph 


< 


f* 


< 


^ 


< 

Pcr 


Pcr 


Per 


Pcr 


< 
Pcr 


Pcr 


Pcr 


Per 


<! 
Pcr 


^ 
/'./ 


< 
Pcr 


N 


< 


fe 


<< 






Pcr 


Pcr 


Pcr 


Pcr 


Pcr 


Pcr 


Pcr 


Per 


Prr 






et. ! et. 


et. 


et. 


et. 


et. 


et. 


cl. 


et. 


et. 


et. 


et. 


et. 


et. 


c«. 


et. 


et. 


et. 


c:'. 


r-/ 




A 


89. 7 33. 3 


93.1 


38. 3 


13.8 


4.9 






44.8 


16. 1 


13.8 


4.9 














<i6.9 


2.5 


2.8 


B 


82. S 30. 4 


G9.0 


3? 4 


41.4 


20.0 






44. H 


17.2 
























c 


93.7,30.6 
91.5 38.3 


65. C 
91.5 


30. t, 
50 


10.6 


14.4 


18.7 


7.3 


6.2 

33. S 


1.8 

11.7 


53. 2 


15.3 


















3 5 


T) 


















3.0 


F 


100 1.59.5 


92 




































3.0 


F 


53. 8|16. 1 


3.8 


1.2 


iôô 


49.4 






























3.3 


c 


66. 7i26. 8 

72.0 34.4 


100 
76.0 


(15 9 






6.7 


2.5 
18 


6.7 


4 9 






















V 7 


H 


44.3 




























? 4 


I 


28.6J1I.3 

S0. 7 28. 6 
9fi.0lC3.5 

or. 7 ko 4 


3.6 
100 
84.0 

4.2 
20. 3 


1.4 
34 9 


100 


84.5 






7.1 
4.0 


2.8 
5.2 
1.6 






















■> 5 


J 


























3 


K 






















? S 


T, 


2.7 
12. 5 














4.2 
52. G 


2.7 

22.7 






33.3 

18.4 


21.6 
8.0 


b 20. 8 
c2li.3 


13.5 
11.4 


1 5 


M 


13.2 


6.8 


















S6.9 


39.8 


2.3 


N 


28.fi 


9.6 


60.7 




































3.0 


n 


100 
100 

78 fi 


00. 4 

a-?. 7 
87 5 


69.2 
56. 
14.3 


39.6 


































1 s 


p 


29 2 










16.0 


7.1 






















? 3 


Q 


1? 5 






























1.1 


R 


52.4 


38.7 


9.5 


6.5 


























14.3 

33.3 
8.0 


9.7 

58.3 
5.7 


6 66.7 


45.1 


1 5 


s 
























23.8 
20.0 


41.6 
14.7 


fi 


T 


52.0 


38.2 


20.0 


14.7 






4.0 


2.9 






1.0 


2.9 


28.0 


20.6 


1.4 


r 






































&100 


100 













































a Six-horse combination harrow and drag. t Lister and planter combinai. c C'ultivators. 



METHODS OF PLANTING AND KINDS OF PLANTEES USED. 

Whether corn is planted level, on beds, or listed dépends largely 
on climatic conditions and on the type of soil. Throughout the 
Centra] Western and Northern States corn is generally planted level. 
(Table VIII.) Where land is poorlv drained corn is sometimes 
planted on beds. In the Southern and South western States, where 
light soils predominate and where hot and dry weather often pre- 
vails during the growing season, corn is frequently planted in the 
bottoin of the furrow several inches below the surface level. This 
process is known as listing. This furrow is usually made with a 
double moldboard type of plow. known as a middle buster or lister 
(fig. 4) , which throws the dirt to both sides. In the Texas, Oklahoma, 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



19 



and Kansas areas a combined lister and planter (fig. 15) is fre- 
quently used. A form of listing often employed in some of the South- 
ern States, where 1-horse plows are largely used, is to throw the land 
into beds as it is broken and plant the corn in the water furrow be- 
tween the beds. 

Table VIII. — Dates and methods of planting corn, showing the kinds of planter s 

used in twenty-one régions of the United States. 

[The key îetters under "Région covered'' refer to counties and States as follows: A=Tipton, Ind.; B= 
Montgomery, Ohio; C=Mercer, N. J.; D=Moultrie, 111.; E=Tama, Iowa; F= Kalamazoo, Mich.; G= 
Maury, Tenn.; H=Hartford, Conn.; I=Bradford, Pa.; J=Christian, Ky.; K=Hamilton, Nebr.; L= 
Rockwall arid Grayson, Tew; M=Scotland, N. C; N=Augusta, Va : 0=Wausnara, Wis.; P=Bates, 
Mo.; Q=A!exander, N. C; K=Oklahoma, Okla.; S=rike, A la.; T= Holmes. Miss.; U= Russe!!, Kans.j 





Date. 


Farmers planting— 


Farmers using planter — 


<s 
t-t 


Aver- 
age. 


Range. 


> 

>1 


a 
o 


bi 

.a 
3 


C 

ffl 


o 

a 


pi 

M 


03 


M 

O 


2-horse. 


i 

o 
if 

<o 

o 


is 
o 


a 

'Si 
<S 

K 


o 
u 
es 


te;" 

O 


o 


\ 


May 9 
May 11 
May 10 
May 17 
May 12 
...do 
Apr. 15 
May 23 
May 26 
Apr. 22 
Mav 14 
Mar. 17 
Apr. 7 
Apr. 29 
May 16 
May 10 
Apr. IS 
Apr. 5 
Mar. 22 
Apr. S 
May 6 


May 1 to20 


P. 

et. 
96. 6 

93.7 
100 
100 
100 

86.7 
100 
100 
100 

96 

41.6 


P. 
et. 


p. 

et. 

3.4 
34.5 

6.3 


p. 

et. 


P. 

et. 

86.2 
3.4 

71.9 
100 
100 

96.2 


P. 

et. 
13.8 
96.6 
28.1 


P. 

et. 


p. 

et. 


p. 

et. 
100 
100 

53. 1 
100 
100 
100 

S0 

24 

35.7 

81.8 
100 

41.6 


P. 

rt. 


p. 

et. 


p. 

et. 


P, 


April 30 to May 25 

A pril 28 to June 2 

May 3 to June 14 

May 1 to 30 












C 


46.9 










F, 




















F 


May 5 to 20 








3.8 
100 

•S0 

67.9 

26.9 
4 

87.5 
100 

60.7 

50 

12 
100 

95.2 
100 
100 
100 


îè" 

50 
13.6 


20"' 
4S 
14.3 
4.6 








r, 


Mar. 15 to June 10 

May 5 to June 10 

Mav 10 to June 6 














H 






20 

32.1 

73.1 

96 

12.5 

50 
88 








T 














T 














K 


J2."5 


4 
37.5 
10.5 


8.4 
89. 5 








L 
M 


Feb. 25 to Apr. 25 

Mar. 10 to May IS 


4.2 
2.6 
3.6 
38.5 

64.3 

42.9 
56 


8.4 
97.4 
17.8 

35.7 
23. S 
57.1 
44 


41.6 




4.2 


N 


Apr. 20 to May 11 
Mav 10to27 


100 
100 

ss 

100 
9.5 




78.6 
61.5 
100 








O 








P 


Apr. 15 toMay 20 

Apr. 7 to 30 




12 






Q 

R 

R 








Mar. 5 to Mav 1 




90.5 
19 
8 
100 


si" 

4 S 


4.8 


23.8 


33. 4 


4.7 


14.3 


T 


Mar. 1 to Tuly 21 

Apr. 15 to Mav 25 


8 


36 




TT 








100 



















Whether corn is plantée! in checks or drilled dépends largely on (lie 
extent corn is grown, on the size 
and shape of the fields, and on the 
topography of the land. Where 
the topography will permit and 
corn is extensively grown, it is 
usually planted in checks, because 
it can be kept free from weeds 
and cultivated easier in this way. 
Where listing (fig. 16) is prac- 
ticed the corn is seldom checked. 
Tf planted level it may be checked 
or drilled. 

The kind of planter used dépends largely on the extent to which 
corn is grown and on the gênerai prosperity of the région. Where 




Fig. 15. — A comhinod lister and corn 
planter, an implement extensively used 
in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. 



20 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



corn is not extensively grown and where labor is cheap, the planting 
is usually clone by hand or with a 1-horse planter (fig. 17). When 




Fig. 16. — Planting corn by the niodilied form of listing. The row is plowed ont with a 
shovel plow attached to the cultivator. The shovel is run twice for each row and 
corn is planted in the bottom of this furrow. By using a cultivator with the two 
shovels attached for laying off the rows, a uniform width of row is maintained. 

planted by hand, either a hand planter (fig. 18) is used or the rows 
are run ont with a plow, the corn dropped by hand (fig. 19) and the 
covering is done with a plow, with 
a hoe, or with the foot. Where 
corn is extensively grown and the 
land is level, a 2-horse checkrow 
planter that drops and covers two 
rows at once (fig. 20) is almost 





Fig. 17. — A 1-horse corn planter, in use 
where the crop is not extensively grown. 



Fig. 18. — Hand corn planters, or bill 
picks, a type of implement used 
where labor is cheap. 



universally used. Where a lister is attached to the planter, only 
1-row planters are used and the number of horses required de- 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



21 



pends on the size of the lister, the depth of listing, and the kind 
of soil. 

PLANTING, REPLANTING, AND HAND CULTIVATION. 

Whether corn is planted in drills or checks dépends principally on 
the topography of the land and the extent to which the crop is 




\4 



W~ 







Fig. 19. — Planting corn in Scotland County, N. C, without the use of a planter. The 
row is laid off with a 1-horse plow, the corn dropped by hand, and the covering done 
with a plow, with a hoe, or with the foot. 

grown. If the land is level and corn is extensively grown it is usu- 

ally planted in checks, as in the Central Western States. TVhere the 

land is rolling or where corn is 

a minor crop, as in the Southern 

States, it is nsually planted in 

drills. Where corn is planted 

in checks more cultivation is 

given than where it is planted 

in drills. (Table IX.) 

The thickness of planting dé- 
pends on the fertility of the soil. 
On the most productive soils corn 
is planted thickest. 

The hand labor consists largely 
in chopping ont weeds and re- 
planting missing hills. This is usually done at the first or second 
cultivation. In the régions where crops requiring considérable hand 
labor predominate, as in the cotton-growing States, more hand labor 
is employed for the corn crop. 




Fig. 20. — A 2-horse checkrow corn planter, 
for dropping and covering two rows at 
once, used on level land where the crop 
is extensively grown. 



22 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Table IX. — Corn culture in regard t<> j>la>iti>ig, replanting, average numbcr of 
cultivations, and yiélds per aère in twenty-one renions of the United States. 



Région covered (flg. 1). 


Farmers 

planting 

in — 


l 'rill averages. 


Check averages. 


Farmers 

practio- 

ing— 


> 

s 

o 


a- 

a 


o 


County and State. 




M 
O 

S3 
O 


a 

** o 


a 


P 


03 

m 


a 

a; 

*" o 
a> si 


d 
s 

a> ■ 
M 


P 
03 


ai 

G. • 

c3 +2 

m 


g 
P3 


o 3 
a ^ 

tu +3 


03 

s 

o 


A 
B 

r 


Tipton, Ind 

Montgomery, Ohio. . 


P. et. 
13. 8 
96. 6 

28.1 


P. et. 

80.2 
3.4 

71.9 
100 
100 

96.2 

20 
32.1 
73.1 
96 

12.5 

39.3 
50 

88 

4.8 


Feet. 
3.5 
3.4 
3.8 


Feet. 
1.2 
1.3 
1.2 


1 

1 
1 


Sq.ft. 
4.2 

4.4 
4.6 


Feet. 
3.5 
3.5 
3.9 
3.4 
3.5 
3.7 


Feet. 
3.5 
3.7 
3.8 
3.4 
3.5 
3.7 


2.5 

4 

3 

2.4 

3 

2.5 


Sq.ft. 
4.9 
3.2 
4.9 
4.8 
4.1 
5.5 


P. et. 



17.3 
68.7 

1.7 
24 

7.7 
13.3 

25 
7.7 

8 

4.1 
76. 3 
42.8 

3.8 
40 
71.4 

4.8 
52 
30 


P. et. 
10 
55.1 
75 
35.6 
24 
20.9 
16.7 
68 
71.4 
15.4 
S 

87.5 
81.6 
82.1 
3.8 
40 
92.9 
42. S 
66 
72 


5.5 

4 

5.9 

4.4 

5.3 

5 

5.4 

3.8 

4.4 

5.1 

5.1 

3.9 

4.3 
4.1 
5.4 
4.8 
5.1 
3.9 
4.7 
4.7 
3.8 


Bu. 
57.4 
52.3 
51.1 


n 




49.3 


F, 












46.6 


F 
G 


Kalamazoo , Mich 

Maury, Tenn 

ITartford , Conn 

Bradford, Pa 

Christian, Kv 

ïlamilton, Nebr 
Rockwall and Gray- 


3. S 
100 
80 
67.9 
26.9 

4 

87.5 
100 

60.7 

50 

12 
100 

95.2 
100 
100 
100 


3.7 
3.7 
3.4 
3.3 

3.7 
3.5 

3.4 
5.5 
3.5 
3.5 
3.5 
4.1 
3.5 
5.3 
3.8 
3.5 


1 

1.4 
2.1 
.9 
1.7 
1.2 

2.1 

1.6 

1.8 

1.1 

1.3 

2.1 

1.4 

2 

2.2 

1.6 


1 

1 

3.4 

1.4 

1 

1 

1.1 

1.3 

1.2 

1.1 

1 

1 

1 

1.4 

1.3 

1 


3.7 
5.2 
2.1 
2.1 
6.3 
4.2 

6.5 
6.8 
5.2 
3.5 
4.6 
8.6 
4.9 
7.6 
6.4 
5.6 


41.5 
40 9 


H 

I 
J 
K 
L 


3.3 

3.3 
3.7 
3.5 

3.6 


3.3 
3.3 
3.8 
3.5 

3.5 


4.2 
3.7 
2.1 
2.6 

1.5 


2.5 
2.9 
6.7 

4.7 

8.4 


39.9 
38.2 
36. 9 
35 

33.6 


M 


Scotland, N. C 


33 


N 


3.5 
3.5 
3.5 


3.6 
3.5 
3.6 


2 
2 
2.5 


6.3 
6.1 

5 


33 



P 
Q 


Waushara, Wis 

Bâtes, Mo 

Alexander, N. C 
Oklahoma, Okla 
Pike, Ala 


30.4 
29.3 
25 ?, 


R 

S 


3.5 


3.5 


2 


6.1 


23.9 
23.1 


T 


Holmes, Miss 

Russell, Kans 










22 


n 










20 4 



















GENERAL FARM PRACTICES AND CONDITIONS. 



SURVEYS IN TIPTON COUNTY, IND. 

The tillage records for Indiana were taken in the central part of 
Tipton County (Table X). This is in the corn-belt prairie section 
(fig. 1, A). The soil is a silty clay loam about 8 inches deep with a 
heavier clay-loam subsoil. The soils are dark brown to almost black 
in color and are very productive, especially the darker type. The 
country is very flat and appears as a continuous plain. 

Many improvements hâve been made in this county. Practically 
ail the land lias been tile drained, the farmers having cooperated in 
establishing central drainage Systems to dispose of the water. Ex- 
ceptionally good roads are maintained. Every section line is a public 
road and nearly ail the roads hâve been graveled. A system of cen- 
tral schools lias been established to take the place of the local county 
schools. The land is worked mainly by the OAvners. The farmers 
live in good houses and hâve well-kept barns and outbuildings, which 
give to the country a very prosperous appearance. 

The farm practices for the section are very uniform. Most farm- 
ers maintain a gênerai rotation of corn one year, wheat or oats one 
year, and hay or pasture one or two years. Some timothy is grown, 
but most of the hay is clover. Considérable truck, such as garden 
peas, tomatoes, and sweet corn, is grown for the canning factories. 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



23 



A few pear orchards are found, but very little fruit is grown except 
for home use. Hogs are extensively raised and furnish one of the 
principal sources of farm income. Numerous cattle, mostly of the 
beef type, are kept. 

Table X. — Tillai/e practices with corn in Tipton County, Ind., showing depth of 
plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and 
normal yield of the crop. 

[In columns 3 to 8 and 10 to 16 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





.a 

.S 

"S 

xi 
p. 
O 


Tillage after plowing and 
before planting. 


Tillage after planting. 


% 




Harrow. 


-a 

à 

_03 


1 

M 

03 

il 

O 03 

M 
O 
Xf 


ex 

.g 

O 


i 

i 

.a 




i 
02 




Cultivator. 


'ô3 
S 
Xi 
<S 
u* 




Total culti- 
vations. 


<D 
IH 
O 


Farm No. 


S 


xi 

o 
o 

fcJO 

.g 

a 

02 


À 
O 

o 
a. 

02 




1 

■■^ 
a> 

u 
O 

X} 

es 


ô 

Si_. 

2S 

.g M 

p. 
02 



.a 

1 


"3 



.a 

to 



Kh 
O 
,4 
CM 


1^ 

» . 

-0 

S 


a ■ 

si 
.s 

Xi 

O 


t>0 

.S 
ë 


a 
2 
"P. 

"S 

a 
ë 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


1 


7 

6 

8 

6 

6 

7 

7 

7 

6 

7 

5 

6 

6 

5 

8 

7 

7 

7 

6i 

6 

6 

7 

8 

'i 

7 

8 

7 

6 

6 


1,2 
1,2 

1.2 

1,2 




3 
3 
3 
2 
3 
3 


2 
2 
2 






3 1 
3 










2to5 
2,3,4 
2to5 
3.4,5 




1 
1 
1 
2 
2 

"2* 

2 

1 
2 
1 
2 
2 
1 
2 
1 
3 
2 
1 
2 
2 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 


4 
3 
4 
3 
5 
5 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
5 
4 
4 
4 
4 
5 
3 
4 
4 
4 
3 
5 
4 
3 
4 
4 
4 
3 


5 
4 
5 
5 
7 
5 
6 
6 
5 
6 
5 

6 
5 
6 
5 

8 
5 
5 
6 
6 
4 
7 
5 
4 
5 
6 
6 
4 


50 


2 






1 








(0 


3 






3 
2 
3 
3 
2 
3 
2 
4 
2 
4 


1 

2 
1 








60 


4 






1 
2 








50 


5 


2 

2 










3to7 


50 


6 






lto4 






5 

"è" 
"è" 


45 


7 




2 


1 
.... 

1 
1 

1 


2 
1.3 






3 to6 
2 to 6 
2to5 
3to6 
2to5 
3to7 
3,4.5 
3,4,5 
3to6 
2to5 


75 


8 


1 

3 
.... 

"ï 


"2 

2,4 
2 
4 
3 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 


2 


3 








60 


9 








50 


10 




3 




2 








50 


11 








65 


12 




3 




a2 

2 








50 


13 


3 | 1 

3 1 

4 ! 2 
2 ; 1 

2 2 

3 .... 
3 i.... 
3 ; 1 

2 i 1 

3 ; 1 
2 2 








60 


14 


2 








2 




50 


15 




4 


1 




55 


16 






.... 






60 


17 








1,4 

1,2 

1 

2 

2 






3,5,6,7 
3,4,5 


65 


18 


3 
2 






60 


19 










2 1,0 5 
3to6 
3to6 
2.3,4 
3to7 




50 


20 












(10 


21 














55 


22 


2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
4 
3 
3 


3 












65 


23 






1 








60 


24. 


2 






3 
2 
2 
4 
3 
3 


1 
1 

"i 
1 

1 






2 to 5 
2,3.4 


60 


25 
















50 


26 








1 
2 
2 






2 to5 

3 to6 




50 


27 


"2" 

2 


3 










75 


28 






3to6 


75 


29 








2,3,4 




,50 
















Farms using, 
percent. . 




93.1 


13.8 


89.7 


44.8 


13.8 


6.9 


'2.8 


79.3 


62.1 


3.4 3.4 


20.7 


75.9 


10.3 


96.6 


'3.9 


5.5 


Ki 



a Plank drag. 

About 75 per cent of the corn land is broken in the spring. Three- 
horse sulky plows (fig. 21) are largely used for breaking. The usual 
custom of préparation is to follow the plow with the disk harrow, 
then roll, and harrow with the spike-tooth harrow before planting. 
The planting is done with the 2-horse 2-row planter and the corn 



24 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 




Fig. 21. — A sulky plow (for either two or tbree 
horses) used in the Central West. 



is plantée! in checks H feet apart each way, alternating the hills 

with two and three kernels. 
After planting, the field is usually gone over with the spike-tooth 

harrow or roller, first before and again after the corn is up. After 

this most of the cultivating is done with the 2-horse 6-shovel culti- 

vator (fig. 22). The customary 
practice is to give four cultiva- 
tions in altemate directions. 

Few cover crops are grown and 
the corn land is usually either 
seeded to wdieat in the fall or 
oats the following spring. Very 
little commercial fertilizer is 
used, but stable manure is fre- 
quently applied broadeast to the 
land before breaking for corn. 
The corn is mostly of the yellow 
dent varieties, but some white 
dent is grown. 
The most prévalent weeds for this section are foxtail, quack-grass, 

smartweed, plantain, ragweed, cocklebur, whitetop, and bull nettle. 

SURVEYS IN MONTGOMERY COUNTY, OHIO. 

. The tillage records for Montgomery County, Ohio, were taken in 
the section around Brookville, in the northwestern part of the county. 
(Table XL) The soil is of a silty clay-loam character with a clay 
subsoil. The land is rolling 
enough to allow good drainage, 
but not steep enough to inter- 
fère with the use of improved 
machinery, and the fields are of 
uniform size and convenient 
shape. Most of this land is tile 
drained and only a few surface 
ditches are necessary. 

The leading roads hâve been 
macadamized. Good country 
schools are maintained. Most of the farms are rather small and are 
operated by the owners. They hâve exceptionally good farmhouses 
and outbuildings, and the country has a very prosperous appearance. 

A very uniform System of farming is practiced in this section. 
On most farms a rotation of corn or tobacco one year, wheat or oats 
one year, and hay or pasture one or two years is maintained. Some 
alfalfa is grown with good results. Considérable red and alsike 
clover seed is produced. Little or no fruit is grown for market and 




Fig. 22. — A 2-horse 6-shovel corn eultivator. 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



25 



little triick is produced. Hogsand cattle are extensively grown, but 
tobacco and wheat are the leading money crops. 

Corn is usually grown on sod land, and in preparing for corn most 
of the breaking is done in the spring with a 3-horse sulky plow 
and immediately harrowed with a spike-tooth or disk harrow. 
Then before planting, the land is harrowed again with the spike- 
tooth harrow and rolled. The corn is usually planted in drills, with 
a 2-horse 2-row planter. The rows are usually 3i feet apart, with 
one stalk every 18 inches in the drill. 



Table XI. — Tillage practices with corn in Montgomery County, Ohio, showing 
depth of plmoing, implements used in order of use, number of Unies each is 
used, and normal yield of the crop. 

[In columns 3 to 6 and 8 to 12 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





<£ 
,d 
o 

•S 

be 

.g 

•s 
o 

a 

o 

A 

a 
» 


Tillage after plowing and before 
planting. 


Tillage after planting. 


r â3 




Harrow. 


o 


te 
.S 
M 
o 


o 

(S 

A 

A 

o 
o 

ô> 

'S. 




Cultivator. 


Total culti- 
vations. 


3 



Farm No. 


À 

O 

O 

te 
S 
a 

03 




2-horse. 




■S 

m 

<B 

O 


■a 

? 3 

? «- 

'= 

H O 

(H 

03 


"3, 
3 




to 

C 

S 



ki 

a 
-a 




S 


o 

o 

M 


o 
A 





œ 

"3 

g 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 

3 
4 
4 
3 
2 
4 
4 
3 
3 
3 
6 
3 
5 
3 
4 
4 
(i 
4 
5 
4 
(i 
3 
3 
3 
4 
4 
5 
5 
5 


16 


1 


(i 

8 

6 

64 

8" 

7 

7 

8 

7 

7 

71 

G 

8i 

8 

6i 

7 

s 



6 

7 

64, 

5§ 

7 

7 

s 2 

8 
7 






1,2 


3 3 


1 
.... 


1 


2,3 






1 

1 
1 


2 
3 
3 
3 
2 
3 
2 
3 
3 
3 
3 
2 
4 
2 
3 
3 
4 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
2 
3 


50 


2 


1,2,3 
1 

1 
2,4 

1,2,5 
1,3,4 

2 

1,2 
1,2 

4 

1 

1 






3 


2.3,4 
2,3,4 




65 


3 


1,2 


3 




3 
1 
2 
3 
3 
5 
4 
4 
5 
3 
5 
3 
3 
4 
4 
2 
2 
5 
5 
4 
5 
4 
2 
6 
5 
4 
3 


75 


4 




1,2,3 
1,2 

"3,'4" 
1.2.3 
1.2,3 


40 


5 


1 

1 


2 

2 
2,3 


3 

1,3,5 
2 
3 

2 
2 

3 

4 

3,4,5 

3 

o3.5 
5 












65 


6 


.... 


1 
2 


2.3,4 




1 
2 


40 


7 


65 


8 






45 


9 


1,4 

1 

3,4 

1,2 

1.2 
1 


3 

2.4 

1,2,5 

3 

3,4 

3 

3 












40 


10 






1.2,3 






65 


11 


2.3 

1 

.... 

1 
.... 


1 


4,5,6 




3 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 


50 


12 


2,3 
2.3.4 

2.3 
2.3.4 
2,3,4 
3to6 


"à" 


45 


13 


1 




66 


14 


50 


15 






50 


16 '.. 


1 
2 


lto4 
4,5 


50 


17 


1,2 

1 

1 

1 to4 

1,2,5 

1 


3.4 
2 
2 
5 
4 
3 


70 


18 


30 


19 

20 


1 
1 
2 


3 


2 
2.3.4 




2 
1 
3 


40 

40 


21 


1,3 


4,5,6 


65 


22 


1.2,3 




50 


23 






1,2,3 
1,2,3 






25 


24 


2 
1,2 
3.4 
1.2 

2 


4 
1 
6 
2 
3,4 
3 


.... 

i,2 










50 


25 


2.3,4 

2.3,4 

4,5 

4,5 

2,4.5 




1 
1 
2 
3 
2 


50 


26 


1 

1,3 
«3 
1.3 


"2" 


65 


27 


60 


28 


50 


29 


(.0 






Farms using, 




41.4 


69 


82.8 


44.8 


ï.h' 


44.8 


44.8 


44.8 


62 


3.4 


69 








Average . . 


7.1 


2.9 


4 


52.3 























« Plank drag. 



8504°— Bull. 320—16- 



26 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



After planting, the cultivation methods are very uniform. Wheii 
the corn is up, the field is usually gone over with the spike-tooth 
harrow or roller and then cultivated three times with a 2-horse 6 or 
8 shovel cultivator (fig. 23). The cultivating is generally level. 

The yellow dent varieties of corn are usually grown. 

Some commercial fertilizer is used and considérable stable manure 
is produced and applied broadcast. Cover crops are seldom grown. 

The most prévalent weeds found in this région are foxtail, rag- 
weed, pigweed, wild carrot, whitetop, and buttonweed. 

SURVEYS IN MERCER COUNTY, N. J. 

The records for Mercer County, N. J., were taken mostly in the 
potato-growing sections south of Trenton. (Table XII.) The soil 
hère is principally of a sandy-loam nature, with a clay subsoil. Occa- 
sionally this clay is underlain with gravel. The land is rolling 

enough to afford good natural 
drainage, except in the bottoms, 
where it is necessary to use tile. 
Thèse bottom lands are practi- 
cally ail tiled. The country is 
level enough to enable the farm- 
ers to hâve fields of uniform size 
and shape and to use improved 
machinery to good advantage. 

The county is generally pros- 
perous. Most farmers hâve good 
houses, good rural schools are 
maintained, and the principal 
roads hâve been macadamized. 

The soil, being of a porous 
character, is rather low in humus 
content, and responds readily to 
a humus supply of any kind. Large quantities of commercial fer- 
tilizer are used on potatoes and corn and mostly applied in the drill 
before planting. 

The tillage practices and rotations are of a rather definite type in 
this région. Nearly ail the farms ma intain a rotation of corn one 
year, potatoes one year, rye or wheat one year, and ha} 7 one or two 
years. Considérable truck and fruit is grown near Trenton and on 
some farms this furnishes the principal income, but the source of in- 
come on most farms is from potatoes and rye. 

Corn is usually grown on sod land, and about 75 per cent of the 
breaking is done in the spring. Most of the land is then harrowed 




Fig. 



-A 2-horse, S-shovel cultivator. 



FARM PEACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORF. 



27 



twice with the disk, acrae, or spring-tooth harrow, then with a spike- 
tooth harrow once, and the plank drag is used once jnst before plant- 
ing. 

Table XII. — Tillage pracHces with corn in Mercer Gounty, X. ./.. showing depth 
i>f plowing, implements used in order of use, number of tintes each is used, 
and normal yield <>f the crop, 

[in columns 3 to 7 and 9 to 13 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several 
farms: as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, elc.l 





ai 

.a 

"o 
o 


Tillage after plowing and 
before planting. 


Tillage after planting. 






Harrow. 


c9 
H 

-3 
a. 


.3 

O 

!5 


i 


u 
u 
o3 
.El 




.g 

'S. 

DQ 


03 

■s 


Cultivator. 


Total culti- 
vât ions. 


3 
.a 






Farm No. 


5 


6 
S 

o 


O 

o 

.9 
m 


Â 

o 
o 

'S, 

02 


2-horse. 


"3 

> 


A 

•o 
o> 
u> 



X) 
01 • 




S! 

.a 




Si 

.a 
ë 


01 

p. 

2 
'£> 

"S 

a 
ë 




> 



g .a 

Au 

■t^ u 

£3 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


S 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


1 


8 
8 
7 
5 
6 
8 
8 
6 

6 

5 

5 

5 

7 

7 

7 

8 

7 

6 

7 

7 

4i 

4i 

8 

6 

8 

6 

6 

5 

4 

4 

6 


1 
2,3 
1,2 

1,2 

1,2 

1 






2 3 
1 4 
3| 4 

3 4 
3 4 
4 


3 






1,2,3 
3 to6 
3 to7 
2 to6 
1,2 
1,3,5 to8 
1 to4 
1 to4 
1 to4 
1 to4 

1 to 5 

2 to5 
1 to4 
2,4,5 

1 to6 

2 

2 to5 
2 to6 
2,3,4 
3,4,5 

1,2 
2 to5 
1 to5 
1 to3 
2to5 

1 to4 
2to5 

2 to7 
1 to4 

1 to5 

2 In 5 
1,2,3 


4,5 






5 
4 
5 
5 
4 
7 
6 
5 
7 
8 
5 
5 
6 
4 
6 
5 
6 
5 
5 
5 
6 
6 
5 
4 
4 
5 
6 
5 
6 
5 
4 
5 


5 

6 
7 
6 
4 
8 
6 
5 
7 
8 
5 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
7 
6 
6 
7 
6 
7 
5 
4 
5 
5 
6 
7 
6 
5 
5 
5 


40 


2 






4 




1,2 

1,2 
1 




2 
2 
1 


50 


3 






4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
5 








65 


4 


1,2 








60 


5.... 


3,4 




40 


6 


3 


"*2 




2 


4 


1 


50 


7 


3 

3,4 
3 

1.2 
3 

4 
2 
3 
A 
3 


""5 

4 
ol 

"4 

04 

4 

4 

"é 
3 


5,6 




50 




1,2 
1,2 








5,6 


5 

5,6,7 

7, s 




40 


9 






3 






50 


10 






2 
4 
4 
2 
4 
4 
4 
4 
2 
4 
4 
3 
4 
3 
5 
3 
3 
4 
3 
2 
4 
2 
3 






R0 


11 


1,2 










3S 


12 




2,3 
1 

2 

"ô 


1 




5,6 


6 


1 


50 


13 




40 


i4 


1 .... 
1 , 2 3 
1 


1 


3 




2 


■15 


15 






50 


16 


1 
1 
1 

1,2 


.... 


4 


3,5,6 
6,7 


1 

1 
1 
1 

2 
.... 


80 


17 


1,2 






3,4 


50 


IS 




1 


50 


19 


2 
î 


1,2 
1 


"*2 

1,2 

1 

5 


3 
3 
3 

4 
2 


3,4 


5,6 
6,7 
5,6 
6,7 


70 


20 


60 


21 


50 


22... 


1 




50 


23... 






50 


24 


1-4 

1 
1 










4 


.... 

'"2 


60 


25 


3 
2 
3 

"~2 

3 

1,2 

3 


2 
3 

4 
2 

4 




1 


40 


26 






6 


5 
1 


75 


27 




1,2 
3 

1 






40 


28 


1 




1 


3 


4'' 


29... 


5 


6 




30 


1 


2 






50 


31... 


1 






1 


50 


32... 


1,2 






4,5 




40 



















Farms using. .per cent. . 


6." 3 


15.6 


18. 7 


40.6 


93.7 59.4 


'Ï.5 


28. 1 


25.(1 


100 


31.2 


46. 8 


53.1 


5.3 


5 9 


51 1 





























a Roller. 



Nearly ail the corn is planted level and about 70 per cent in checks 
3§ to 4 feet apart each way, with three kernels per hill. About 50 per 
cent of the planting is done with a hand planter and the rest with the 
2-horse 2-row planter. After planting, about 50 per cent of the farms 



28 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



use a weeder (fig. 24) or spike-tooth harrow for the first cultivation, 
and for the next four or five cultivations the 2-horse 8-shovel culti- 
vator is mostly used. The 1-horse 5-shovel 1-row cultivator (fig. 25) 

is often used for the last culti- 
vation. A 2-horse potato plow 
having four long sweeps and de- 
signed for ridging the land is 
often used for the last cultivation. 
About 35 per cent of the farm- 
ers grow crimson clover and rye 
or vetch as cover crops after corn. 
The principal varieties of corn 
grown are of the yellow dent type, 
but some white dent is grown. 
The most prévalent weeds are crab-grass, smartweed, nut-grass, 
Canada thistle, ragweed, and purslane. 

SURVEYS IN MOULTRIE COUNTY, ILL. 

The tillage records for Moultrie County, 111., were taken near Lov- 
ington, which is in the prairie région. (Table XIII.) This section 
is exceptionally level. The farms are divided into uniform fields, 




PlG 



24. — A weeder used for the first culti- 
vation of corn. 




Fig. 25.- 



-A 1-horse 5-shovel corn cultivator ; at left with sweeps attached, at right 
with shovels. 



which are well fenced. The farmers appear to be very prosperous, 
with exceptionally good houses and outbuildings, but only a few of 
the roads hâve been improved and hauling is very difficult during 
wet weather. 

The soil is a very dark-colored sticky clay, known as the prairie- 
loam type, which cakes easily and becomes extremely hard in dry 
weather, frequently cracking badly. It is very fertile, and prac- 
tically no commercial fertilizer is used. Nearly ail the cultivated 



FARM PRAOTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



29 



land in this section is tile drained and the farmers hâve cooperated 
in establishing central drainage Systems to dispose of the drainage 
water. 



Table XIII. — Tillage practices tvith corn in Moultrie County, 111., showing depth 
of plowing, implements nsed in order of use, number of Urnes each is used, 
and normal yield of the crop. 

[In columns 3 to 5 and 7 to 12 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





a 

.a 

a 

"% 

o 
P( 
o 

a 

fi 


Tillage after plowing 
and before planting. 




Tillage af 1 er 


planting. 




3 




Harrow. 




G 
'S 


< 


•s 



M 

03 

M 


a> 
"o 


2-horse cultivator. 


Total cultivations. 


a 

03 

u 


Farm No. 


O 

O 

V 

à 
Pi 
03 


M 
w 

fi 



fi 

é 


> 



•s 
■1 




3 
m 


IN 

<a 

M 

Q 


C 


P. . 

!" 

S q 

•S 

O 


S 

u 



< 


!® 

"Ô3 

a 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


H 


15 


16 


1 


5 

5 

4 

5 

4 

5 

6 

5 

4i 

5" 

6 

6 

5 

5 

6 

5 

7 

6 

6 

6* 

7" 

5 

7 

5 

5J 


1 
3 
3 
1,4 
3 
1 
3 

2 

1,2 

3 

3 

1 

3 

3 

3 

1,4,5 

1,4 

1 
3 

4,5 
2 
3 

2,4 


2,3 
1,2 

1 
2,3 

1 

1,2 
1,2 

1 

3 

1,2 

1,2 

2,3 

1,2 

1,2 

1,2 

2,3 

2,3 

1 

3 

1,2 

1,2,3 

1 

1,2 


4 

2 

"Y 
2 


3 
4 
3 
4 
3 
2 
3 
2 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
5 
4 
1 
3 
4 
5 
2 
3 
4 


2 
1,3 
1 
1 
1 
2 


1 
2 

"i" 


4to7 

4 

2,3 

2,3 

3,4,5 

lto4 

2,3,4 

5 

1,2,3 


3,4,5 






2 
3 
13 
1 
1 
2 

5 
1 
3 

2 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 


3 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
2 
3 
4 
3 


5 
7 
4 
4 
4 
5 
4 
4 
6 
3 
5 
5 
3 
4 
6 
4 
4 
4 
5 
5 
4 
4 
5 
3 
5 


55 


2 






50 


3 


<*2,3 






50 


4 


4 


4 


50 


5 


45 


6 






50 


7 








60 


8 




3' 


1 
1,3 


"2" 








50 


9 

10 




4,ii 




48 

4:, 


11 


2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

.... 

1 

.... 

1 


1 
"2 




3,4,5 




45 


12 


2to5 

2,3 

2,3,4 

3to6 




45 


13 








40 


14 








45 


15 








35 


16... 






2,3,4 


55 


17. 


1 
1 

i 


2,3,4 
2,3,4 
3,4,5 
2,4 
2,3,4 
2,3,4 
2to5 
1,2,3 






1 3 

1 :î 


75 


18 








55 


19 




2 
3,5 




1 

l 
1 
1 
1 

2 


4 
4 
3 
3 
4 
3 
3 


50 


20 


2 

4 

i,3 




21 


55 


22 








40 


23... 








50 


24 








50 


25 


9 


1 




3,4,5 




45 












Farms using, 




92 


92 


32 


3.' 2" 


76 


44 


84 


8 


24 


8 


88 










5.4 


3.2 


4.4 


49.5 



























a Eight-shovel cultivator. 

The farmers in this county generally practice a rotation of corn 
two years, oats one year, wheat one year, and clover one year. Fre- 
quently wheat is omitted from the rotation and clover is seeded with 
oats. Still more frequently corn is grown for a number of years on 
the same land without any rotation. Very littlé fruit or truck is 
grown in this section and the corn crop is the principal source of 
income. Some cattle and hogs are sold. 

The fields are usually laid off in 40-acre squares and the breaking 
is done largely with 3 and 4 horse sulky plows. Generally large 
Percheron mares are worked on the farms and the geldings are sold 



30 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



for the city trade. Thèse mares average about 1,400 pounds in 
weight, which permits the use of large implements and requires little 
man labor. 

After the land is broken the seed bed is usually prepared with a 
4-horse disk harrow, followed bv a corrugated roller (fig. 26). and 





Fig. 26. — A corrugated roller or pulverizer, an im- 
plement used in Moultrie County, 111., and other 
sections of the Middle West. 



Fig. 27. — A 2-horse disk cul- 
tivator used in cultivating 
corn in Moultrie County, 111. 



this is followed by a spike-tooth harrow. This leaves the land prac- 
tically level and in very fine conditino. Planting is done in most 
cases with a 2-row edge drop planter in checks 3^ feet apart each 
way, alternating the hills with two and three grains. 

\Yhile the corn is coming up, or right after it gets up, the field is 
harrowed once or twice with a spike-tooth smoothing harrow. If 

the field is cloddy, a corrugated 
roller is used before the harrow. 
After this harrowing most of the 
cultivating is done with a 2-horse 
6-shovel cultivator or a 2-horse 
disk cultivator ( fig. 27 ) . Usually 
three or four cultivations are 
given in alternate directions. A 
type of implement known as the 
surface cultivator (fig. 28) is fre- 
quently used, especially for the 
last cultiva tion. This implement, 
instead of having shovels, is 
equipped with four long sweeps, 
which are very similar to the 
knives of a stalk cutter. Thèse 
sweeps run two on either side of the row and about 1 inch deep. 
They are set at an angle to the soil of about 45°. The sweeps eut 
off and destroy the weed growth much more effectively than do the 
shovels. 




Fig. 28. — A type of surface cultivator 
equipped with four long sweeps for stir- 
ring the soil, used for corn tillage in 
Moultrie County, 111., and other sections 
Of the Middle West. 



FARM PRACTÎCE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN, 



31 



Practically no cover crops are grown in this région. Both the 
white and yellow dent varieties of corn are grown. The principal 
troublesome weeds for this section are foxtail, smartweed, cocklebur, 
morning-glory, and Inittonweed. 

SURVEYS IN TAMA COUNTY, IOWA. 

Tama Connty is located in east-central Iowa and is a typical corn- 
growing région. The soil is principally of the silt-loam type and is 
\ery productive. The country generally is gently rolling, but some 
parts of this county are rather hilly. This rolling condition with a 
loamy type of soil affords good natural drainage except in the bot- 
toms, which are practically ail tile drained. The land is usually not 
too steep for the profitable use of improved machinery. (Table 
XIV.) 

Table XIV. — Tillage practices with corn in Tama County, Iowa, showing depth 
of plowing, implements used in ordér of use, number of finies each is used, 
and normal yield of the crop. 

[In columns 3, 4, and 6 to 9 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation: 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





<p 
.g 

a 

o 
a 
o 

.g 
S* 

Q 


Tillage after plowing 
and before planting. 


" 


Tillage after planting. 






■f 




Harrow. 


si 

.a 

O 


i 

o 

k. 

C3 

.a 

.g 

o 
o 

4 

Pn 
M 


2-horse. 


Total cultivations. 


42 
t. 


Farm No. 


S 


À 

o 
o 

i 

â 

ce 


Cultivator. 


œ 

03 
CE 


03 

•a 

ers 

se 

H 


o 


C 

'3 

o 
Es 

3 


Pi 

T3 




> 
o 


5 


6 

o 


1 


2 


8 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


1-2 


i : 


1 


5 
5 
5 
4 
5 
5 
4 
5 
5 
5 
5 
6 
6 
4 
6 
5 
4 
6 
4 
3 
5 
7 
4 
6 
6 


3 
2 
3 
1 

1,2 
1 

1,2 
3 
3 

1,2 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1,2 
1 

1,2 
1 

1 

1,2 

1 

1 

1,2 


1,2,4 

1,3 

1,2,4 

2 

3,4 

2,3,4 

3 

1,2 

1,2 

3,4 

1,2 

2 

2 

2,3 

3,4 

2 

3,4 

2,3 

1,2 

2,3 

3 

2 

2 

3,4 


4 
3 
4 
2 
4 
4 
3 
3 
3 
4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
4 
2 
4 
3 
2 

3 
3 
2 
2 

4 


1,2 

1 
1,2 

1,2 
1,2 
1,2 
1,2,3 
1,2,3 
1,2 
1,2 
1,2 
1,2 
1,2 
1,2 
1 
1,2 
1,2 
1,2 
1,2 
1,2 
1,2 

1 
1,2 


3,4,5 

2 to5 
3,4,5 

4,5 

3 to6 
3,4,5 
3 to6 
4to7 
4,5,6 
3,4,5 
3 to6 
3,4,5 
3 to6 
3 to6 
3 to 6 
2,3,4 

3,4 
3 to6 
3,4,5 
3 to6 
3,4,5 
3,4,5 
1 to4 
2,3,4 
3 to6 






2 
1 

3 

2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
1 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

1 
2 


3 
4 
3 
2 
4 
3 
4 
4 
3 
3 
4 
3 
4 
4 
4 
3 
3 
4 
3 
4 
3 
3 
4 
3 
4 


5 
5 
5 
5 
6 
5 
6 
7 
6 
5 
6 
5 
6 
6 
6 
4 
5 
6 
5 
6 
5 
5 
4 
4 
6 


45 


2 






40 


3 






45 


4 




1,2,3 


65 


5 


63 


6 






60 


7 






45 


8 






40 


9 






45 


10 






45 


11 






35 


12 






4 S 


13 






30 


14 






35 


15 






45 


16 






20 


17.... 


5 




40 


18 


50 


19 






45 


20 






50 


21 






55 


22 






30 


23 






40 


24 






40 


25 






60 










Farms using, 




92 


100 


3 


92 


100 1 4 


4 


96 










5.1 


3.4 


5.3 


46.6 










1 







32 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

The county generally appears very prosperous. Most of the lead- 
ing roads hâve been improved, good schools are maintained, and 
exceptionally good farmhouses and barns are found. Almost um- 
versally the farmhouses are painted white and the barns red. 

Almost ha lf the farms are operated by tenants, and usually a 
cash rent is paid. The average-sized farm is 148.8 acres, with 109.7 
acres cultivated, not including the pasture lands. Xo definite rota- 
tions are practiced. The principal crops grown are corn, oats, and 
hay, with some little wheat. A gênerai rotation of corn two years. 
oats one year, and hay and pasture two years is practiced to some 
extent. Not enough fruit is produced to supply home demands. 
Sweet corn is grown by most farmers living near Toledo, to supply 
the canning factory located there. Bluegrass does well in this sec- 
tion and pastures are maintained on most farms. Most of the grain 
grown in this section is fed on the farms to beef cattle and hogs. 
Some coïts are raised and a few farmers keep sheep. The principal 
source of farm income is from the sale of live stock. 

In preparing land for corn heavy teams are generally used. Most 
of the breaking is done in the spring with a 3-horse sulky plow. 
Where corn follows sod often a part of the land is broken in the 
f ail. After plowing, the land is usually harrowed with a disk 
harrow and then just before planting harrowed twice with a spike- 
tooth harrow. Corn is planted level and a 2-horse 2-row planter 
is used. The rows are generally 3| feet apart each way and the 
hills alternate with two and three grains. The cultivation methods 
after planting are exceptionally uniform. The corn is harrowed 
with a spike-tooth harrow before and just after coming up. Then 
three or four cultivations are given with a 2-horse G-shovel riding 
cultivator. Practically no cover crops are grown, and no fertilizei 
is used other than stable and barnyard manure. Both the yellow 
and white varieties of dent corn are grown. 

The most prévalent weeds in this section are foxtail, bindweed, 
pigweed, ragweed, smartweed. and cocklebur. 

SURVEYS IN KALAMAZOO COUNTY, MICH. 

Where the tillage records for Michigan were taken in southern 
Kalamazoo County, principally around Schoolcraft, the country is 
level and is known as the prairie section. 

This région is prosperous and on most farms are found excep- 
tionally good farmhouses and good outbuildings. Most of the prin- 
cipal roads hâve been graveled or macadamized. Since the land is 
practically level the farmers are enabled to hâve uniform-sized 
fields and to use improved machinery to advantage. (Table XV.) 
The soil consists of a dark brown to black loam from 12 to 16 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



33 



inches deep. The subsoil is of a heavier clay loam to a deptli of 
3 feet, which is underlain with beds of sand and gravel, affording 
good natural drainage, which makes tiling unnecessary. 

In this région a type of gênerai farming is practiced, with the 
farm income principally from grain and hogs. A rotation of corn 
one year, oats one year, wheat one or two years, and hay one year 
is maintained to some extent, but only a few f arms hâve definite rota- 
tions. Very little truck is grown except around Kalamazoo, where 
numerous muck beds are found. Thèse are principally used for 
growing celery. A few cattle are kept and the manure is usually 
applied broadcast to the sod land before breaking for corn. Prac- 
tically no commercial fertilizer is used. 



Table XV. — Tilhu/e practices with corn in Kalamazoo County, Midi., showing 
deptli <>f plowing, implements used in order of use, nuinber of Unies each is 
used, and normal yicld of the crop. 

[In columns 3 to 6 and 8 to 11 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





a 

o 

o 

p, 

n 


Tillage after plowing 
before planting. 


and 


Tillage after planting. 


•S 




Harrow. 


"o 
P3 


.a 

o 

< 


i 
o 

Ut 

t-, 

03 

O 
O 

o 

'3, 




Cultivator, 2- 
horse. 


Total cultiva- 
tions. 


O 

03 

<B • 




"S 

•o 

M 

.a 


à 

o 
o 

o 

'S, 

œ 


S 


"3 
o 

■S 


À 

a 
o 

.g 
t-* 
P. 

œ 




i 

"H. 

si 

cl 

feg 
o 


.g 
o 

< 


s" 3 

'P. 

a 
u. 

o 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


1 


6 

6* 

6" 

7 

7 

6J 

7 

7 

6è 

7 

6 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

6 

7 

6 

6 

6 

7 

7 

n 

6 


1.3 

2,3 

2,3 

1,2,3 

1,2 

3,4 

2 

2 

2 

2,3 

2,3 

1,2,3 

1,3 

1 

1,3 

2 

1,2 

1 

1 

1 

2,3 

2 

2 

2 

2,3 

2,3 




2 
1 
1 
4 
4 
1 
1 
1 
14 
1 
1 
i 
2 
24 
25 
1 
3 


3 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
2 
4 
4 
3 
4 
4 
3 
4 
5 
3 
3 
2 
3 
4 
4 
3 
3 
2 
3 
3 






1 to5 
1 to6 
1 to4 
2to5 
1 to6 
1 to6 
1 to6 
1,2,3 
1 to5 

1 to5 

2 to5 
1 to4 
1 to4 
1 to4 
1 to4 
1 to6 

2,3 

1 to5 

2 to5 

1 to5 

2 to6 
1 t3 7 
1 to6 

1 ,3 to 6 
1,3 to 4 






5 
6 
4 
4 
6 
6 
6 
3 
5 
5 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
5 
2 
6 
5 
4 
5 
5 
7 
5 
5 
4 


5 
6 
4 
5 
6 
6 
6 
3 
5 
5 
5 
4 
4 
4 
4 
6 
3 
7 
5 
5 
5 
6 
7 
6 
6 
4 


40 


2 














60 


3 














40 


4 .. 






1 






1 


40 


5 


3 

2 




30 


6 










40 


7 










35 


8 


4 
3 


3 










40 


9 










40 


10 










55 


11 


4 




1 






1 


40 


12 


38 


13 














40 


14 


3 

4 
3 












35 


15 










40 


16 

17 . 


1 


2 
al 


2 to 7 


1 
1 
1 

1 


40 

42 


18 .. 


2 
2 
3 
4 
3 
3 




42 


19 . 




3 
24 
1 
al 
1 
1 
1 
1 


40 


20 

21 


1 




•10 
38 


22 


1 






1 


40 


23 


55 


24 




2 
2 




1 
1 


50 


25... 






40 


26 






40 














Farms using, 
per cent 
Average. 


6.7 


100 


53.8 3.8 


96.2 


3.3 


19.2 


15.4 


96.1 


3.8 


34.6 








4.7 


5.0 


41.5 






1 




1 





a Plank drag. 



8504°— Bull. 320—16- 



34 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

The tillage practices with corn, which is the only intertilled crop, 
are very uniform. Practically ail the corn land is broken in the 
spring with 3 or 4 horse sulky plows. The common practice of 
préparation is to roll the land just after plowing and to fcllow the 
roller with a spring-tooth harrow. Then before planting, it is har- 
rowed again with a spike-tooth harrow. Practically ail the corn is 
planted levé! and in checks 3-f feet apart each way, alternating the 
hills with two and three grains. 

After the corn is up a few of the farmers use the spike-tcoth har- 
row for the first working, but practically ail the cultivating is done 
with a 2-horse 6-shovel cultivator, alternating the cultivations with 
the rows and across the rows with the checks. Usually five cultiva- 
tions are given. Both the white and yellow dent varieties of corn 
are grown. 

The most prévalent weeds are foxtail, pigweed, Canada thistle, 
ragweed, and curled dock. 

SURVEYS IN MAURY COUNTY, TENN. 

The tillage records (Table XVI) for Maury County, Tenn., were 
taken near Columbia. This section is rolling and in some parts 
extremely rough and rocky. Considérable quantities of phosphate 
rock are mined near Columbia, and limestone is plentiful. The 
Hagerstown loam, the predominating soil in this vicinity, is very 
productive. 

Most of the f arms through the more prospérons sections are rather 
large, with extensive fields, and are generally operated by the owners 
with hired labor or tenants. The principal rcacls hâve been mac- 
adamized and the country generally is prospérons. 

Few farms hâve any set rotations, but a rotation of corn one 
year, oats one year, wheat one or two years, clover one year, and 
pasture one year is maintained to some extent. Very little fruit or 
truck is grown, and the principal sources of income are grain, hogs, 
and cattle. 

The extensive type of farming founcl hère, together with the cheap 
labor available, is responsible for the irregular methods of corn culti- 
vation. Before planting, the land is usually harrowed twice with a 
disk harrow and once with a spike-tooth harrow. Most of the corn 
is planted level and in drills. 

After the corn is up it is usually harrowed with a spike-tooth har- 
row. After this, most of the cultivating is done with a 2-horse 4- 
shovel cultivator and a 1-horse spike-tooth cultivator. Usually 
four or five cultivations are given. Crimson clover and rye are fre- 
quently sown at the last cultivation as a cover crop. Both the yellow 
and white varieties of dent corn are grown. 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



35 



Table XVI. — Tillage practices ivith corn in Maury County, Tenn., showing depth 
of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of tintes each is used, 
and normal yield of the crop. 

[la columns 3 to 6 and « to 17 the ficaires show the order in which the impleraent was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





a 

43 

o 

.a 

bfl 

.g 

o 
Pu 
o 

CD 

fi 


Tillage after plowing 
and before planting. 


Tillage after p'.anting. 


'co 
43 




Harrow. 





3 

44 

O 

P3 
< 




H 

43 

43 




A 
43 

'p. 
œ 


1 



P. 

> 


M 

ai 


43 


Cultrvator. 


Total culti- 
vaiions. 


3 
43 

eu 



Farm No. 


S 


43* 

o 
o 

J5 

VI 


a 
< 


09 

> 



w 
»ô 

0) 
Fh 
O 

43 


44 

-3 

a> 

u 


43 




cilS 


u 

H 

O 
X) 



43 


43 




M 



O 


0> 



43 

c'i 
œ 


43 


p- 



w 

CO 
O) 
Fh 



43 

(M 


u 
a> 

■o 

II 

Se 


ni 

«g 

O 


û 

.3 
44 


< 


a 

(H 

O 


1 


2 


o 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


1 


9 
7 
7 
8 
8 
7 
10 
6 
7 
7 
6 
7 
8 

7 
12 


1,2 

1,2 

1 

1 

1.2 

1,2 

1,2 

1 

1 

1,2 

1,2 

1,2 

1,2 

1 

lto4 


3 






3 


1 


3 










2,4 
5,6,7 

3.5 

2,3,4 

2 


5,6.7 

8 

6 

5 

3to6 

4,5,1, 






2 
3 


5 
5 
6 
4 
5 
5 
5 

4 
3 

4 

4 
3 


8 
6 
5 
6 
6 

5 
5 
4 
5 
5 
5 
4 


50 


2 






2 1.3.4 


2 

4 


1 


2 








50 


3 


2 






? 








38 


4 






1 

2 
3 
3 
2 
2 
3 
3 
3 
6 

4 


1 
1 
1 

1,2 
1 
1 
1 
1 

ol 








1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


30 


5 






















40 


6 


3 

"2 

2 
3 
3 
3 
3,4 
2 
















2,3 

4 


4,5 


36 


7 


3 
















40 


8 












2,3 


40 


9 
















2,3 

2,3 

3,4,5 

1 

1 t04 


4,5 

4 
4,5 




40 


10 














2,3 






35 


11 


















50 


12 








2 












50 


13 .. 




5,6 








2 to 5 






40 


14 




















50 


15 










1 








2,3 








?5 
























Farms us- 
ino,per 




100 


66.7 


6.7 


6.7 


2.7 


73.4 


6.7 


C6.7 


6.7 
.... 


6.7 


6.7 


73. : 


80.0 


13.4 


6.7 


73.4 


4.4 


5.4 




Aver- 
ape. 


7.7 


40.9 



a Roller. 



The principal weeds found in this section are crab-grass, smart- 
weed, cocklebur, pigweed, morning-glory, and thistles. 

_ SURVEYS IN HARTFORD COUNTY, CONN. 

The tillage r/ecords for Hartford County, Conn., were taken around 
Hartford, South Manchester, and throughout the Connecticut Valley 
région, wliere we find mostly tobacco farms. Enough truck and dairy 
farms are operated to supply the local market, but the principal 
sources of farm income are tobacco and fruit. 

The country generally is level or gently rolling and the soil is very 
fertile. (Table XVII.) Practically ail the farms are worked by the 
owners. Most of the farmers hâve good homes, with unusually good 
barns and cutbuildings. Ail the principal roads hâve been macad- 
amized. Good schools are maintained and the country is excep- 
tionally prosperous. 



36 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



The soil is mostly of a sandy-loam type with a sandy-loam subsoil. 
The low lands contain more clay. The land is so rolling that tile 
drains are not usually necessary. 

Table XVII. — Tillage practices irith corn in Hartford County, Conn., showing 
clepth of plowing, implements used ht order of use, numbcr of Urnes eacli is 
used, and normal yield of the crop. 

[In columns 3 to 6 and 8 to 1 4 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cuitivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





<0 

•3 

.g 

ta 

? 

o 

a 
o 

.g 

Ph 

o 

O 


Tillage after plowing 
and before planting. 


Tillage after planting. 






Harrow. 


U 


te 

Eh 

O 

3 







ô 

a 


•a 


Cultivator. 


Total culti- 
vations. 


a, 
3 

03 


Farm No. 


a 
■4 


S 






1-horse. 
Oncetorow. 


2-horse. 


O) 

•0 
t- 


O 


.9 

O 

3 


a 

2 
"3 






"3 
> 


•m 


3 
> 


« 


> 


ô 


■ï~3 
1 te 


"3 

a 
s 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


1 


6 

7 
8 
7 

10 
8 
7 
7 
9 
7* 
7 
7 
6 
8 

7 
7 
8 
7 
7 
8 
7 
8 
8 
7 


""2 

2 

1,2 

1 


1,2 
1,2 
1 
1 
3 
2 
1,2 


3 




3 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
2 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
3 
3 










1 
3,4.5 
3,4,5 








1 
3 
4 
3 
2 
3 
2 
4 
3 
2 
4 
3 
3 
3 
5 
4 
4 
3 
2 
2 
2 
4 
1 
3 
4 


1 
5 
6 
4 
5 
5 
4 
4 
4 
2 
4 
4 
3 
3 
5 
4 
6 
3 
3 
3 
4 
4 
3 
3 
4 


40 


2 


1 

"i 


2 
1,2 










2 
2 
1 
3 
2 
2 


45 


3 










2,3 
4,5 
4,5 


6 

4 

4 


4» 


4 










50 


5 






1,2,3 

1,2 
1,2 








T20 


6 


3 
3 
1,2 
3 
3 


"é 


3 

3 

3,4 

2.3 

1,2 






T 15 


7 






50 


8 


1,2 






40 


9... 


1,2 
.... 

.... 


1,2 

2 
1,2 
1 
2 
2 




1 






4 


1 


20 


10 








40 


11 






1 to4 
2,3 










17 


12... 


3 
2 






1 


1 

1,2 

1 to4 

1,2 






4 

2,3 

3 

5 

3,4 

5,6 


1 
"'"2 


37 


13. . 






45 


14 












T 17 


15 


1 

1,2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
2 














40 


16 












33 


17 


1 

" "i 


1 

1,2 

1 

1.2 

1,2 


1,2 




3,4 






50 


ls 






1,2,3 
2,3 




45 


19 


1 












1 
1 

2 

"2 


30 


20 


1 

1,2 






2,3 




T 12 


21 






3,4 


60 


22 


1,2,3 






4 

3 

3 

?.4 


33 


23 


1 


2 








35 


24 


3 
1,2 


"é 


1,2 
1,2 








37 


25 












50 




















Farms using, 
percent 




3G 


76 


72 


8 


'2.4 


20 


40 


48 


16 


24 


16 


56 


52 








Average. . . 


7.4 


3 


3.8 


39.9 





























a Yields are given in bixshels except those marked " T, " which are tons of ensilage. 

No gênerai rotation is practiced and tobacco is often grown on 
the same land for 20 years without a change. Usually enough corn 
and hay is grown to supply home demands. A large part of the 
corn is grown on sod land. Most of the breaking is done in the 
spring with a 2-horse plow. This land is very easy to get into good 
condition. After plowing, the land is usually harrowed once or 
twice with a disk or acme harrow and then once with a spike-tooth 
harrow. 



FARM PRACTÏCE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



37 




Fig. 29. — A 1-horse spike-tooth cultivator. 



Practically ail the corn is planted level and mostly in drills 3^ 
feet apart, with hills 2 or 3 feet apart in the drill and three or four 
stalks per hill. Chiefly the yellow flint varieties of corn are grown. 
After planting, either a spike-tooth harrow or weeder is frequently 
used for the first cultivation. The 1-horse spike-tooth (fig. 29) and 
the 1-horse 5-shovel cultivators 
are extensively used. The 2-horse 
8-shovel and 6-shovel cultivators 
are also considerably used. 

A spécial 2-horse cultivator. 
equipped with sharp scrapers or 
knives for cutting the weeds and 
stirring the surface of the soil, is 
largely used (fig. 30). This cul- 
tivator was designed for culti- 
vating tobacco, and the knives are so adjusted that they will extend 
under the leaves and cultivate near the stalk without breaking or 
bruising the leaves. As shown in Table XVII there is little uni- 
formity in the cultivation methods in this section. 

Practically no cover crops are grown, and the supply of organic 

matter is largely main- 
tained by stable manure 
secured from the cities. 
Immense quantities of 
commercial fertilizers are 
used for corn and to- 
bacco, and about 15 tons 
of stable manure per acre 
are applied to the tobacco 
land every other year. 
Very little stable manure 
is applied to the corn 
land, however. 

The most prévalent weeds are ragweed, chickweed, pigweed. smart- 
weed, wild carrot, and barnyard grass. 

SURVEYS IN BRADFORD COUNTY, PA. 

The tillage records for Bradford County, Pa. (Table XVIII), 
were taken near Towanda, in the Volusia silt-loam area, which covers 
a large part of northern Pennsylvania, northeastern Ohio, and south- 
ern New York. The soils of this région are naturally divided into 
two main groups, upland or hill soils and the bottom-land soils. The 
hill or upland soils are extremely rough and rolling and are not 
usually very productive. The bottom-land soils are level and very 
fertile. 




Fig. 30. — A 2-horse cultivator with scraper instead 
of shovels, used in cornfields in Hartford County. 
Oonn.. aud in the potato sections of New Jersey. 



38 



BULLETIN" 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. 



None of the upland and only a small percentage of the bottom land 
is tile drained. A few of the leading valley roads hâve been macad- 
amized. The valley farms usually hâve good buildings and show 
signs of prosperity, but the hill farms are not so productive. But 
few tenants are found in this section. 

Table XVIII. — Tillage practices with corn in Bradford County, Pa., showiny 
depth of plowing, implements used in order <>f use, number of Urnes each is 
used, and normal yield of the crop. 

[In columns 3 to 6 and 8 to 13 the Apures show the order in which the implement was used on the severaJ 
farms; as, l = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





.g 
_g 

bu 

a 
% 

o 

ft 

o 
Si 

P. 

a> 

O 


Tillage after plowing and 
before planting. 


Tillage after planting. 






Harrow. 


o 


a 

M 

M 
O 

< 


o 


Cultivator. 


Total cuit i- 
vations. 


e 


Farm No. 


à 

o 
o 
+j 

a 
'£< 

m 


M 
S 


À 

o 
o 

i 
.■3 
p. 
m 


> 
o 

■S 

u 
o 

s 


3 
> 
o 
A 

é, 
o 

o 

ci 


"3 

"k ° 

•A o 

>£ a 
1° 


> 
o 
Si 

<3 

O 

si 


si 

e & 

O) o 

o 


-a 

lis 

2° 

03 


"S 

a 

P. 

| 

M 
<S 

si 
O 


3> 

a 
3 

S-l 

O 

3 


03 
1* 

œ 
P. 

2 

Is 

'>> 

o 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


U 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


1 


6 
5 
6 

7 
7 
6 
6 
7 
6 
7 
6 
6 
5 
6 
7 
8 
7 
7 
4 
8 
3 
6 
5 
5 
6 
7 
6 


1,2 

1,2 

1 

1,2,3 

1,2,3 

1,2,3 

lto4 

1,2,3 

1 

1,2,3 

1,2,3 

1,2 

1 

1,2,3 








2 
2 
2 
4 
3 
3 
4 
3 
2 
5 
3 
2 
ï 
3 
4 
3 
3 
2 
2 
2 
1 
2 
3 
2 
1 
4 
1 
2 




1,2,3 












3 
5 
6 
5 


3 
5 
6 
S 


50 


2 










1 toô 
1 to6 








25 


3 


2 


















T10 


4 


4 








1 to5 

2 to5 








T8 


5 








1 
1,2 

2to5 








5 


25 


6 












3 






3 
4 
3 
5 
6 
3 
6 
8 
4 
7 
5 
6 
5 
2 
2 
ï 
3 
3 
3 
4 
3 
4 
3 


3 
5 
3 
5 
6 
3 
6 
8 
4 
7 
5 
6 
5 
2 
2 
4 
3 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
4 


40 


7 








61 








1 


50 


8 










1,2,3 






T7 


9 




2 
5 


cA 






1 to4 

1,2,3 

1 to6 
lto8 
1 to4 
1 to7 


"è 


5 




25 


10 






1 to5 


40 


11... 










T12 


12... 




















40 


13... 




















40 


14 




















40 


15... 


1 to4 

1,2,3 

1,2,3 

1 

1 

1,2 

1 

1,2 

1,2 

1 

1 

1,3,4 

1 

1 




















40 


16 . 






1 to5 










T 12 


17... 













1 to6 

5 








T 10 


18 




2 
2 








1 to4 








50 


19... 




1,2 








25 


20 




1,2 

4 
1,2,3 

1 
1,2,3 
1,2,3 








30 


21 








1,2,3 








3 


T12 


22 














30 


23... 




3 

2 








2,3 








50 


24... 






— 






35 


25 








4 


.... 


37 


26... 






2 


1 




2,3,4 
1 to4 
2,3,4 




50 


27... 










40 


28... 




2 




b 1 








1 


40 










Farms us- 
ing,per 




100 


3.6 


28.6 


7.1 


2.S 


14.3 


7.1 


35.7 


67.91 7.1 


7.1 


14.3 








Average. 


6.1 






4.2 


4.4 


38.2 



a Yields are given in bushels except those marked "T," which are tons of ensilage. 
b Spike-tooth harrow. c Plank drag. 

As a gênerai rule the farmers hâve no set rotation. A rotation of 
corn or buckwheat one year, oats or wheat one year, and hay two or 
three years is somewhat practiced. On a few of the bottom farms 
tobacco is extensively grown. Enough dairy farms are maintained 



FARM PKACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 39 

to supply local demands. A few apples are produced, and most 
farmers are engaged in gênerai farming. 

A large percentage of the upland is in pasture and a considérable 
number of cattle are produced. Practically ail the corn is grown on 
sod land. Most of the breaking is done in the spring with a 2-horse 
plow, and this is followed with the spring-tooth and spike-tooth har- 
rows. Because the land is very stony only a few disk harrows are 
used. 

Most of the upland farmers plant corn in drills 3 to 3| feet apart, 
with one staik everv 8 inches in the drill, but in the valleys and on 
level uplands corn is usually planted in checks 3 to 3| feet apart 
each way, with three and four stalks to the hill. In either case the 
planting is level. 

After planting, a few of the farmers use a spike-tooth harrow or 
weeder for the first cultivation, but most of the cultivating is done 
with either a 2-horse 6-shovel cultivator or a 1-horse 5-shovel culti- 
vator, the 5-shovel cultivator being largely used. Occasionally a 2- 
horse 8-shovel cultivator and a 1-horse 2-shovel cultivator are found. 
On the tobacco faims a spécial cultivator similar to that used in the 
Connecticut Valley tobacco district is used. This is a 2-horse cul- 
tivator equipped with scrapers or knives for stirring only the surface 
soil and cutting the weeds. It is so adjusted that the knives extend 
under the tobacco leaves and cultivate near the stalk without break- 
ing or bruising the leaves. Few cover crops are grown, and corn 
land is usually seeded to oats in the spring. 

Both the flint and dent varieties of corn are grown, but the dent 
is largely used for ensilage. 

The most prévalent weeds are ragweed, smartweed, pigweed, and 
wild carrot. 

SURVEVS IN CHRISTIAN COUNTY, KY. 

Most of the tillage records for Kentucky (Table XIX) were taken 
in southern Christian County, in the section around Pembroke. This 
is a level prairielike section with very fertile soil of a silt-loam type. 
This soil lias good natural drainage, and ordinarily no tiles or sur- 
face drains are found. 

Practically ail the leading roads hâve been macadamized. The 
farmers hâve exceptionally good houses and appear prospérons. 
Mostly negro labor is employed on the farms, which are large, but 
since cheap labor is available very little improved machinery is em- 
ployed. 

A gênerai rotation of corn or tobacco one year, wheat two years, 
and hay two years is maintained to some extent on most farms. Cow- 
peas are grown for hay in this section and as a catch crop are often 
sown in corn at the last cultivation. 



40 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



The principal farm incomes are from wheat, hay, tobacco, and 
hogs. Most of the corn is fed on the farm. Very little fruit or truck 
is grown except for the local market. 

Table XIX. — Tiîlage practices with corn in Christian County, Ky., showino 
depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of Urnes each is 
used, and normal yield of the crop. 

[In colnmns 3 to 5 and 7 to 12 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = tirst working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





o 

a 

se 

.g 

'S 

o 

fi 

o 

fi 
G 


Tillageafter plow- 
ing and before 
planting. 


Tillage after planting. 




Farm No . 


Harrow. 


"o 


a 

o 

te 




u 

C3 




Pi 

m 


Cultivât or. 


te' 

e 




Total culti- 
vât, ion s. 


3 

.£ 




5 


o 
o 

'S. 


è3 

p.» 
s 

£ois 

000 



^0 




> 


1-horse, 2-shovel, 
twice to row. 



tejj 

L, 

b° 

03 

W 


A 

fi 
a 

O 




3 




fi 

'?. 






1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


1 


9 

7 
7 
6 
8 
8 
7 
7 
8 
8 
6 
6è 
4 
8 
7 
7 
7 
6 
12 
7 
6 
6 
6 
8 
7 
7 


1,2 3,4 
1,2 3 




4 
3 
1 
2 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 

K 

3 
5 
3 
1 
3 
2 

3 
3 
1 
2 

2 
3 
5 
4 
3 


1 

1 
1 

1,2 

1 
1 
1 






2 3 4 
2,3 






1 
1 
1 


3 
5 
3 
4 
4 
5 
6 
4 
3 
4 
4 
5 
2 
4 
3 
6 
3 
3 
3 

4 
5 
6 
5 
6 
5 


4 
6 

4 
4 
4 
7 
7 
5 
4 
4 
4 
6 
4 
5 
4 
8 
4 
4 
3 
7 
5 
6 

5 
6 
6 


20 


2 


4,5,6 

2,3,4 

3,4 

1 to4 
3to7 
4to7 




25 


3 


1 

1 








40 


4 


9 


"é 






1,2 




35 


5 


1,2 3 
1,2 3 
1,2 3 
1,2 3 
1,2 3 
1,2 4 

1 to 4 5 
1,2 3 

1 to 4 1 5 
1,2 3 










40 


6 










2 
1 
1 
1 


50 


7 






2,3 
2to5 


2,3 


40 


8 






40 


9 


4 
3,4 






40 


10 


1,2 
1 to4 






40 


11 










40 


12 


i 


6 




2 to5 




1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 


40 


13 


1,2 


3,4 




35 


14 


1 
1 
1,2 
1 
1 


2 toà 

8 








30 


15 


1 
1,2 




2,3,4 
2,3,4 








40 


16 


3 




7 


3to6 




30 


17 


1 2 


40 


18 


1,2 

1,2,3 

1 

1 

1,2 

1,2 

1,2,3 

1,2 

1 


3 




2,3,4 

1,2,3 

3,4 

2,3 




35 


19 








35 


20. . 






.... 

1 
1 

"ai 


5,6,7 

4,5 
2 to6 
4to7 

1 to5 

5,6 

2 to6 






1,2 


.... 

1 
1 


40 


21... 


2 








30 


22 






30 


23 


3 

4 
4 


"*5 
3 








2,3 


50 


24 








40 


25 








lto4 


.... 


40 


26 


3 2 








35 














Farms using, per 




100 


80.7 


15.4 


"3 


69.2 


69.2 


19. 2 


11.5 


34.6 


15.4 


69.2 








Average 


7.1 




4 3 


5 1 


36.9 



























« Roller. 



This région combines the désirable conditions of the level prairie 
lands of the corn belt with the cheap labor conditions of the cotton 
belt, and the tillage methods employed hère combine the practices 
of both sections. Corn is generally grown on sod land. Usually as 
much plowing is done in the fall as time and the weather will per- 
mit, and the remainder is plowed in the spring. A few farmers 
plow in the fall and then rebreak the land in the spring. After 
plowing, the land is usually harrowed twice with a disk and once 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



41 



with a spike-tooth harrow. When the land is cloddy the roller is 
sometimes used. 

Most of the corn is planted with a 2-horse 2-row planter. Some 
farmers plant by hand when labor is plentiful, and a few use a 
1-horse planter. Seventy-three per cent of the planting is in checks 
i'rom 3^ to 4 feet apart each way, with two stalks per hill. Prac- 
tically ail the corn is planted level. After the corn is up it is usually 
harrowed with the spike-tooth harrow. After this most of the culti- 
vating is done with a 1-horse spike-tooth cultivator and a 1-horse 
2-shovel cultivator (fig. 31). 

Often a 1-horse turning plow is used as a cultivator, first to plow 
the dirt a way from the corn, which is known as barring-off, then 
the middles are plowed out, throwing dirt to the corn. The 2-horse 
4-shovel (fig. 32) and 8-shovel cultivators are* used, but not so much 
as the 1-horse implements. Principally because of cheap labor, the 




Fig. 31. — A 1-horse 2-shovel culti- 
vator, a tillage implement in 
gênerai use in cornflelds in the 
South. 




Fig. 32. — A 2-horse 4-shovel corn cultivator. 



1-horse implements are largely used, and only where more expensive 
labor is employed is much labor-saving machinery found. 

Practically no cover crops are grown. The white dent varieties 
of corn are principally grown. The most prévalent weeds are crab- 
grass, smartweed, ragweed, and wild onion. 

SURVEYS IN HAMILTON COUNTY, NEBR. 

Hamilton County is in the prairie section of Nebraska and practi- 
cally ail the land is in cultivation. The soil in this région is very 
fertile, but seasons are often unfavorable and crop production varies 
largely with the amount of rainfall. The soil is a deep black silt 
loam with a clay subsoil. It becomes very hard in dry weather and 
frequently cracks open. In the northern part of the county along 
the Platte River the soil is more sandy and not so productive as the 
silt-loam type. 

This is a comparatively level région, just rolling enough to give 
good natural drainage and not steep enough to cause érosion or to 
interfère with the use of machinery. (Table XX.) There are no 
tile drains and practically no surface ditches or terraces. 



42 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Most of the farms are worked by the owners, and by having large 
fields and using heavy teams and improved machinery the minimum 
amount of labor is required. No definite cropping System is main- 
tained, but usually the land is in corn for three or four years, in 
oats one J^ear, and then wheat for three or four years. Some timothy 
and clover is grown, but most of the hay is produced from alfalfa, 
which does well in this région. Bluegrass does well and is often 
grown for pasture. 

Table XX. — Tillage practices with, corn in Hamilton County, Nebr., showing 
depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of Urnes each is 
used, and normal yield of the crop. 

[In columns 3 to 5 and 7 to 9 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





Si 
o 

.2 

ta 

.9 

o 
a 
"S 
.g 

o 




Tillage after plowing 
and before planting. 


Tillage after 


planting. 




13 

•S 




Harrow. 


01 

o 
Pi 


bc 

g 

M 
o 

< 


£ 

o 
u 
u 
03 

,d 

O 
O 

i 

'S. 
m 


o 
P3 


> •_' 
II 

CE 

O 


Total cultivations. 


» 


Farm No. 


À 

o 
o 

à 
■g 

a 


5 


u 
o> 

•a 

œ • 

O t. 


& 
ft 
1- 

a 

S 


00 

,0 
M 

u 
o 

< 


a 
2 

S 

u 

o 


1 


2 


3 


i 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


u 


12 


13 


1 


6 
5 
5 
7 
5 
6 
6 
6 
5 
5 
7 
5 
6 
7 
6* 

5 
7 
6 
6 
5 
5 
6 
6 
6 


1,3 

2 

1,3 
1,3 

1 
1,3 
1,3 
1,3 

1 
1,2 
1,3 

1 
1,3 

1 
1,3 

1 
2,3 
1,3 

2 

1,3 

1,3 

1,3,4 

2 

1 


2 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 




3 
2 
3 
3 
2 
3 
3 
3 
2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
3 
1 
3 
1 
3 
3 
2 
3 
3 
4 
2 
2 


1 

1 

1,2 

1 

1 

1.2 

1,2 

1,2,3 

1,2 

1 

1,2 

1,2 

1 

1 

1,2 

1,2 

1 

1 

1 

1,2 

1,2 

1,2 

1,2 

1,2,3 

1 


2 


2to5 
2,3,4 
3,4,5 
2,3,4 
2,3,4 
3 to6 
3,4,5 
4to7 
3,4,5 
2,3,4 
3 to6 
3to6 
2,3,4 
2,3,4 
3,4,5 
3 to 6 
3 to6 
2,3,4 

2 to5 

3 to6 
3,4,5 
3,4,5 
3 to6 
4,5,6 
2to5 


1 

1 

2 
ï 
1 
2 
2 


4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
3 


5 
4 
5 
4 
4 
6 
5 
7 
5 
4 
6 
6 
4 
4 
5 
6 
6 
4 
5 
6 
5 
5 
6 
6 
5 


40 


2 


30 


3 


30 


4 


35 


5 


33 


6 


40 


7 


45 


8 


3 4 

2 3 


45 


9 


20 


10 


1 

2 
2 
î 
1 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
1 


3 
4 

4 

3 
3 
4 
4 
3 
4 
4 
3 
3 
4 
3 
4 


40 


11 


2 

1,2 
2 


2 


35 


12 


45 


13 


30 


14 


40 


15 .. 


30 


16 


2 




40 


17 


30 


18 


1 
2 
1 
2 
2 
2 
1 
2 




30 


19 


35 


20 


30 


21 . 


30 


•>■> 


40 


23 


35 


24 


35 


25 . 


32 






Farms using . . .per cent 


5.8 


96 


84 


4 


2.5 


100 


4 


100 


100 






3.4 


5.1 


35 





















A considérable number of cattle and usually from 75 to 100 
hogs are kept on a farm. Practically no fruit or truck is produced, 
and the farm incomes are largely from hogs, grain, hay, and cattle. 

The tillage practices with corn are very uniform. Usually the land 
is disked before plowing, which cuts up the stalks and puts the land 
in better condition. Practically ail the plowing is done with a 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



43 



4-horse gang plow (fig. 33) or a sulky disk plow (fig. 34) and the 
land is gone over immediately with a spike-tooth harrow. Then 
before planting, it is harrowed with the disk and again with the 
spike-tooth harrow. 

Practically ail the planting is done with a 2-horse 2-row planter, 
and the corn is planted level in checks 3^ feet apart each way, alter- 
nating the hills with two 
and three grains. After 
the corn is up, it is har- 
rowed once or twice with 
a spike-tooth harrow and 
then cultivated three or 
four times in alternate 
directions with a 2-horse 
6-shovel cultivator. 

No cover crops are 
grown. The stable ma- 
nure is largely applied to 
wheat, and no commercial 
fertilizer is used for corn. 

Both the white and yel- 
low dent varieties of corn are grown. The most prévalent weeds are 
foxtail, bindweed, smartweed, and pigweed. 




Fig. 33. — A gang plow for four or five horses, exten- 
sively used in the Central West for breaking land. 



SURVEYS IN ROCKWALL AND GRAYSON COUNTIES, TEX. 

The tillage records for Texas (Table XXI) were taken in Grayson 
County around Sherman and in Rockwall County near Fate. The 
soil in thèse régions is of the black clay-loam type and very fertile. 

The land is rolling and no tile 
drains are necessary. Only a few 
surface ditches are required. 

A few of the roads hâve been 
macadamized and others are be- 
ing improved. The farms hâve 
exceptionally good houses and 
outbuildings, and f air schools are 
maintained. A considérable por- 
tion of the land is worked by ten- 
ants, but usually under the super- 
vision of the owner. The fields are large, and 4 or 5 horse teams are 
commonly used. A few farmers find the traction engine economical. 
The seasons are rather uncertain, and crop yielcls dépend largely 
on the amount of rainfall. No gênerai rotation is practiced, but 
usually corn and cotton follow small grain. Frequently cotton is 
grown on the same land two years in succession and then is followed 




Fia. 34. — A sulky disk plow. 



44 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



by corn. Oats and wheat are not usually grown on the same land for 
two succeeding years, but oats are often grown one year and wheat 
the next. Some fruit and truck is grown. Few cattle or hogs are 
kept, and the principal farm incomes are from cotton and grain. 
Alf alfa is grown on some of the bottom lands and does well except in 
dry seasons. 

Table XXI. — Tillage practices with corn in Rockwall and Grayson Counties, 
Tex., showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of 
timcs each is used, and normal yield of the crop. 

[In columns 4 to 7 and 9 to 11 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





0) 

A 
a 

S 

bo 

.9 

o 

a 

"o 

A 

P. 
O 


Tillage after plowing and before 
planting. 




Tillage after plantir 


g- 




A 

S 

A 

O 
Fh 

O 




à 
o 
M 
o 

(H 
A 

03 

-d 

-o 


Harrow. 


Eh 

3 

% 

o 


g 
'3 
§ 

II 

•73 P< 

A 


.g 

O 

< 


o 

M 
03 
J3 

O 

o 
i 

â 

'p, 

ce 


Cultivator. 


Total 


cultivation. 


Farm No. 


o 
q 

à» 

02 


fi 


S 

o 

■S 

■«* 
o 

1 

A 


tu 

2 a 

A ts 

en a. 


<v . 

► î: 

t. 


S,; 
o 

Q 


•S 

O 

■s 
<! 


œ 

a 

3 
•8 
'>> 

"ô! 

a 

M 

O 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


U 


15 


1 


8 
4 
4 
4 
8 
8 
7 
8 
(i 
7 

G 

4 

8 

4 

5 

5 

4 

(i 

8 

8 

S 

H 

5 


1 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

.... 

.... 

1 


1 


1 


«2 




2 
1 
1 


1,2 


3,4 

1,2 


5.6 

3 

1,2.3 

4 

2.3 

1.2.3 

3,4 


2 


4 
3 
3 
4 
3 
3 
4 
3 
4 
3 
3 
4 
3 
5 
3 
4 
3 
4 
5 
3 
3 
4 
3 
3 


6 
3 
3 
4 
3 
3 
4 
3 
4 
3 
3 
4 
5 
5 
3 
4 
6 
5 
5 
3 
4 
4 
3 
3 


37 


2. 


30 


3.. 




ol 




25 


4 








1,2,3 
1 


40 








al 
ol 


1 


1 
1 

1 
2 
2 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
1 
2 
4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
1 




30 


6.. 






30 








1.2 


1.2 
1.2,3 

1.2 

1.2.3 

1 

1.2 
3.4,5 

1,2 


30 


8 


1 

1.2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1,2,3 

.1,2 

1.2 

1 

1.2 

1 




a2 


20 


9.. 


3,4 




40 


10 . 








50 


11 




1 
2 
2 
2 




2.3 
3,4 

3.4,5 
1,2,3 
2.3.4 
4.:.. 6 

2to5 
3.4.5 
3 
4 
2.3,4 
1,2,3 
1,2.3 


2 

3 
1 

1 


25 


12 


30 


13 


40 


14 


40 


15... 


20 


16 




2 
4 




1.2.3 
1 

1 


1 

1,2 
1.2 
2,3 

1 


35 


17 


30 


18 


30 


19 








40 


20 




2 




40 


21 


35 


22 








50 


23 








35 


24 






1 




1 






25 














Farms u s i n g , 




41.6 


66.7 


4.2 


54.2 


4.2 


i.5 


20.8 


70.8 


87.5 


20.8 








Average. . . 


6.4 


3.5 


3.9 


33.6 























a Lister and planter combined. 

The tillage practices with corn are rather unusual. A large part 
of the land is broken in the fall with a 4-horse lister, or middle 
buster, which leaves the land in ridges the width apart the corn rows 
are to be. This implement (fig. 4) plows out a furrow by throwing 
the dirt to both sides. After ridging the land in the fall it is allowed 
to stand until spring without further préparation. Before planting, 
the ridges are usually harrowed with a spike-tooth harrow. Then 



FAEM PEACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COBN. 45 

in planting a 2-horse 1-row planter is used. This planter is equipped 
with sweeps or a broad shovel, which tears down this ridgë and makes 
a furrow where the ridge stood, in which the corn is planted several 
inches below the surface level. Practically ail the corn is planted 
in drills 3} feet apart with one stalk every 20 inches. Some farmers 
break the land level with 4-horse gangs, harrow with a spike-tooth 
harrow, and then lay off the rows with a lister and plant the corn 
in the bottom of this furrow about 4 inches below the surface level. 
In some of the bottoms where drainage is poor corn is planted on 
beds. On some of the higher lands which are inclined to be dry the 
land is bedded and corn planted in the water furrow between the 
beds. 

After the corn is up, a few farmers use a spike-tooth harrow for the 
first cultivation, and after this practically ail the cultivating is done 
with a 2-horse 4-shovel cultivator, using either 4-inch shovels or 
sweeps. For the first workings the shovels are mostly used, espe- 
cially next to the corn, but sweeps may be used for the middle. At the 
last cultivation sweeps are mostly used and are set so that the land is 
leveled by the last cultivation. 

The yellow dent varieties of corn are principally grown. Little 
commercial fertilizer is used and stable manure is not considered very 
valuable ; it is often burned. 

The most prévalent weeds are Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, pig- 
weed, cocklebur, and nut-grass. 

SURVEYS IN SCOTLAND COUNTY, N. C. 

Scotland County, N. C, is a typical cotton région, being very level, 
with a sandy-loam soil and a clay subsoil. Only on the heavy bot- 
tom lands is tiling necessary, nor is much surface ditching required. 
Some open ditches are found surrounding the fields. 

Most of the main roads hâve been improvecl, principally with sand 
and clay. Fairly good schools are maintained. The landowners hâve 
exceptionally good houses and the région appears very prospérons. 

Practically ail the land is owned by white men and worked under 
the supervision of the owners by negro tenants on a share basis, in 
which the tenant furnishes the labor and gets one-third the crop. In 
some cases the tenant furnishes the labor, half the fertilizer, half the 
seed, and gets half the crop. A negro man and his famity, with one 
horse, usually work about 19 acres of cotton and 6 acres of corn. 

No gênerai rotation is practiced in this section. Corn is usually 
planted on the bottom lands which are too heavy for cotton and on the 
less fertile uplands. The principal crops grown are cotton, corn, oats. 
and cantaloupes. By far the most important crop is cotton, and the 
acreage in cotton is limited only by the labor available for picking. 



46 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUEE. 



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FARM PEACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OP CORN. 



47 



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48 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

Cantaloupes are largely grown, and at the last cultivation cowpeas 
are sown broadcast over the entire field, furnishing shade for the 
ripening melons. Later, crab-grass cornes up among the pea vines, 
and the mixture makes excellent hay. Practically no fruit is grown 
and only enough truck crops other than cantaloupes are grown to 
supply local demands. 

Most of the cultivated land is in intertilled crops, labor being 
plentiful during the cultivation period. The cultivating is done with 
1-horse implements (Table XXII). This is because more labor is 
available than is necessary during the cultivating season, in order that 
there may be enough available for picking cotton in the fall. 

Some time during the winter or spring the cotton and corn stalks 
are chopped up with a stalk cutter or disk harrow. 

Practically ail the com land is broken in the spring, mostly 
with a 2-horse plow. A few farmers practice breaking in the fall 
with a 2-horse plow and then rebreak in the spring with a 1-horse 
plow. It is a common practice to break the land for corn by throw- 
ing it up in beds the width the corn rows are to be apart. Occasion- 
ally land is broken level and then bedded. After bedding, no further 
préparation is given until planting time, and for préparation and 
planting a modified form of the Williamson plan is used. The corn 
is planted in the water furrow between the beds, but before planting 
a 1-horse subsoiling plow is run in the bottom of this water furrow, 
breaking the subsoil to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, and the corn is 
planted in this furrow by hand or with a 1-horse planter. The 
planting is always in drills about 5^ feet apart, with hills H feet 
apart in the drill and one or two stalks to the hill. 

Most of the farmers employ a modified form of the Williamson 
plan of cultivation. After planting, the corn is allowed to stand for 
three or four weeks before the first cultivation is given, in order to 
stunt the growth of the young plants. This is supposed to give a 
larger production of grain with a smaller stalk growth. To further 
this process no fertilizer is applied at planting time, but after the 
first cultivation some is applied at each cultivation, and during the 
season 500 to 700 pounds per acre are applied. 

For the first cultivation one furrow is run on either side of the 
row very close to the corn, with a 1-inch 1-shovel plow going as deep 
as one mule can pull it. The middle is not plowed ont at this culti- 
vation. 

Usually for the second cultivation a furrow is opened with a lister 
directly between the rows; then with a 1-horse turning plow ail the 
middle is plowed ont, throwing the dirt to this furrow and away f rom 
the corn. This usually takes six furrows with the turning plow. 

For the next cultivation the middle is plowed out with the turning 
plow or sweep, throwing dirt to the corn. After this, practically ail 




FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 49 

the cultivating is clone with sweeps covering ail the middle with three 
furrows, and by the last cultivation the land is comparatively level. 

As shown in Table XXII, often two or more implements are used 
for the same cultivation. Fertilizer is frequently applied to corn at 
the second or third cultivation, in which case the fertilizer distributor 
(fig. 35) is run close to the corn row and the middle plowed out with 
the sweep or 1-horse turning plow. 

Very little stable manure is produced. Practically no cover crops 
are grown, but at the last cultivation cowpeas are often sown broad- 
cast between the corn rows. Frequently peanuts are planted in drills 
between the corn rows at the last 
cultivation, and after the corn is 
gathered the field is pastured 
with hogs. Most of the corn is 
of the white dent varieties. 

The most prévalent weeds are 
crab-grass, cocklebur, and smart- 

Weed. ^ IG - '^• r '- — '^ fertilizer distributor. 

SURVEYS IN AUGUSTA COUNTY, VA. 

Augusta County is located in the Shenandoah Valley, Va., and the 
soil is of the Hagerstown séries. This région is extremely rolling 
and in some places rocky, but the farms are divided into large fields, 
and improved machinery is generally used. (Table XXIII.) The 
work is mostly done with 2 and 3 horse teams. Except for a few 
bottoms none of the land is tile drained, but practically ail the land 
is drained by surface ditches to prevent érosion. 

Most of the leading roads hâve been macadamized and are operated 
under the toll System. The farms are usually operated by the owners 
with hired labor insCead of tenants. The farms are large, and the 
people generally are in comfortable circumstances. 

On most farms a rotation of corn one year, wheat two years, and 
hay two years is maintained. A large percentage of the land is in 
pasture, and apples are extensively grown. The farm income is prin- 
cipally from apples and grain, supplemented by hay and cattle. 

The corn is grown on pasture or hay sod, and most farmers prefer 
to plow this land in the spring. Usually the breaking is done level 
with a 2-horse or 3-horse plow. After breaking, the land is har- 
rowed once or twice with a spring-tooth or disk harrow, and before 
planting it is gone over with a spike-tooth harrow or roller. The 
planting is largely done with 2-horse 2-row planters. Corn is usually 
planted level and in drills 3| feet apart, with one stalk every 18 
inches in the drill. TVTiere the land is not too rolling, the corn is 
planted in checks 3| feet apart each way, with two stalks to the hill. 



50 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Table XXIII. — Tillage practices with corn in Augusta County, Va., shoicing 
deptlt of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is 
used. and Donnai yield <>f the crop. 

[In columns 3 to 7 and to 14 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several 
fanns; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





a 

o 

.3, 

M 

.g 

_o 

p. 
"S 

a 

"E. 

s 



Tillage after plowing and 
before plant ing. 


Tillage after plant ing. 






HaiTow. 




si 
■ë 

O 


si 

S 

O 

3 


i 



A 

A 






a 


Cultivât or. 


Total cuit i- 
vations. 


"S 


Farm No. 


c 

o 

+J 

BO 

.9 
o. 

02 


M 

S 


À 

o 
o 

S 

M 

'S. 
œ 


1-horse. 


2-horse. 


a; 

O 

u* 
t- 



(H* 




u 

C3 


e 

a) 

S 
c. 

1 

ai 

A 

O 


C 

S 

O 







3 


■S 



A 


> 


•S 

«5 



A 

30 


|| 

A 



ci 

a 

B 

u 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


1 


9 

7 
8 
6 

10 
9 
8 
6 
9 
7 
9 
8 
8 
8 
8 
9 
8 
8 
8 
9 
7 

10 
5 
7 
8 
8 
9 
9 


1,2,3 

1,2 

1,2 

1,2 

3 

1,3 

2,3,4 

3 

1,2,3 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

3 

lto4 

3 

2,3 

2,3 

1 

3 

1,2,3 

lto4 

1,2 










3 
3 
3 
5 
3 
1 
3 
4 
4 
3 
3 
2 
2 
4 
3 
2 
1 
3 
4 
3 








1 to4 
1,2,3 
lto4 
lto5 
1,2 
1,2,3 








4 
3 
4 
5 
2 
3 
3 


4 
3 
4 
5 
2 
3 
3 
4 
7 
4 
5 
5 
6 
3 
4 
3 
4 
2 
5 
4 
5 
6 
4 
4 
6 
4 
4 
3 


40 


2 


3 
1,2 

1 

1 
1,2 


3 
3 
















- 


35 


3 


















35 


4 


4,5 
















25 


5 














40 


6 




















40 


7 . 


2 






1 
1,2 


1,2,3 










25 


8 








2,3,4 






1 


3 


18 


g 




4 








3to7 




2 5 


50 


10 






1 to4 
2to5 
3,4,5 
3to6 
3 




4 
4 


12* 


11 


1 

1 

2,4 

1,2 

2 


2 
2 
2 


3 




1 

1 

1,2 










1 


50 


12 


2 








1 4 


25 


13 










2 


4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
2 
5 
4 
5 
4 
3 
4 
5 
4 
4 
3 


30 


14 




3 




1,2 






30 


15. . 






1 




2,3,4 




1 


20 


16 












1,2,3 
2,3,4 


37 


17 








1 










1 


40 


18 


1 






2 




1,2 






40 


19. . 








1 to5 










16 


20 


1,2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 










1 to4 

1 to5 

3to6 

2,3 








40 


21 




4 




4 
3 
3 
1 
3 
3 
4 
3 














35 


22 


al, 2 
1 










2 
1 

' "l 


50 


23. . 


3 






4 








.50 


24. . 








lto4 


30 


25 . 




2 




1 






2 to6 
1 to4 
1,2,3 
1,2,3 




20 


26. . 










30 


27 














4 








20 


28. . 




3 
















50 






















Farms us- 
ing...per 




85. 5 


60.7 


28.6 


17.8 


7.1 


'3.' 6 


35.7 


14.3 


10 7 


78.5 


7.1 


3.6 


35.7 


'3.' 7 


"i"i 






8 




33.0 





























a Roller. 

After the corn is up, about one-third of the farmers use a spike- 
tooth harrow for the first cultivation. After this, most of the cul- 
tivating is clone with a 2-horse 6-shovel cultivator. Usually three or 
four cultivations are given with this implement. Other cultivators 
found less frequently are the 2-horse 8-shovel, 1-horse 3-shovel, 1- 
horse 2-shovel, and 2-horse spring-tooth. Most of the farmers go 
over the field at least once with a hoe to chop out weeds and to replant. 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



51 



Scarcely any cover crops are grown, and wheat is usually sown after 
corn. The yellow dent varieties of corn are largely grown. 

The most prévalent weeds are foxtail, lamb's-quarters, chicory, and 
Spanish needle. 

Considérable fertilizer is nsed l'or corn and wheat, and stable ma- 
nure is applied broadcast to the sod land before planting to corn. 

SURVEYS IN WAUSHARA COUNTY, WIS. 

The tillage records for Wisconsin (Table XXIV) were taken in 
northwestern TVaushara Coimty, principally around Plainfield. 



Table XXIV. — Tillage practices with corn in Wcmshara County, Wis., slwwing 
depth of plowing, {triplements used in order of use, number of Urnes each is 
used. and normal yield of the crop. 

[In columns 3. 4, and 6 to 11 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





o 

a 

a 
o 

o 

fi 


Tillage after 
plowing and be- 
fore planting. 


Tillage after planting. 






Harrow. 


G 
3 
o 

< 


i 
o 

03 

■d 

A 

o 
o 
+^ 

M 

co 


S) 


Cultivator. 


Total ctilti- 
vations. 




Farm No. 


fi 


O 

o 
S 

'» 
ce 


2-horse. 


■SB 

»ô o 

® s 

E c 
o o 


O 
© . 

Il 

O 
M 

U 

03 

a 


1 
| 

O 


O 

is 
< 


o3 

Fh 

CD 
P. 




"a 
> 
o 

5 


t> 
o 
xi 

1 




2 

.* 
'P. 

"03 
g 
O 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


1 


5 

4 

5 

6 

G 

G 

(i 

6 

(1 

5 

6 

6 

5 

5 

6 

6 

5 

6 

6 

6 

5 

5i 

4 

6 

5 

6 


1 
1 
1 
1.2 
1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 
1 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 
1 


1 
2 
2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 

1,2 
1 

1,2 
2 
1 
2 

1,2 
2 
1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 


1 
2 
2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
1 
2 
2 
1 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 


1,2 

1,2 
1,2 

1,2 
1,2 

2 


2,4 

4 

3 

3,5 

2 

3,5 
2 
3 

2,3,4 


2,3,4 
2to5 








1 
1 
3 
1 
3 
2 
4 
2 
. 2 
1 
3 
2 
2 
2 
1 
4 
2 
2 
1 
3 
2 
1 
1 
1 
2 
3 


3 

4 
3 
4 
3 
3 
4 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
2 
4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
4 
3 
4 


4 
5 
6 
5 
6 
5 
8 
6 
5 
4 
6 
5 
5 
5 
4 
7 
6 
4 
5 
7 
6 
5 
4 
5 
5 
7 


35 


2 








30 


3 




3,5,6 




50 


4 


4,5 

3,5 

2,4,5 

4,6.7,8 

3 to6 

3,4 

3,4 

2,4,6 

3,4,5 

2,4,5 

3,4,5 

2,3,4 

5,6,7 


2,3 


25 


5 




(i 


T 8 


6 






30 


7. 








25 


8... 








30 


9.. 






5 
2 


20 


10 






25 


11... 






25 


12... 










13.. 








30 


14... 








35 


15... 








30 


16.. 








45 


17 


3,4,5 




6 


25 


18 


2,4 

3,5 
2 

3 

2.4 


1,3 

2to5 

12. 4 . fi. 7 

3 to6 
2to5 
2,3,4 

1,3.4,5 
2,4,5 

3. 5, 0, 7 


20 


19 . 








35 


20 








25 


21 








40 


22 








35 


23.. 








25 


24... 








35 


25 










26.. 








25 












Farms using . . per cent 


5i 


69. 2 


100 


L8 


96.2 


53.8 


92.3 


7.7 


3.8 


15.4 


100 








3.4 


5.4 


30.4 

























a Yields are given in bushels except on farm 5, where "T" means tons of ensilage. 



52 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

Tins is primarily a potato-growing section, with a sandy or sandy 
loam soil 8 to 12 inches deep, underlain with a heavier sandy-loam 
subsoil, which is often gravelly. This area is almost level, and since 
the soil is of a sandy character practically no drainage is required 
except on the low lands, where big drainage ditches are eut every 
mile or so. 

The leading roads hâve been macadamized, and the country is 
fairly prospérons. Practically ail the farms are worked by their 
owners, with some hired labor for harvesting crops. The farms 
range from 150 to 200 acres in size, with 125 to 150 acres tillable, 
but a considérable part of this area is usually in pastnre. 

As a gênerai rule no definite rotations are practiced, but usually 
potatoes are planted on sod land, and corn is either grown on sod 
land or follows potatoes. Corn is followed by rye or oats, and 
potatoes, when not followed by corn, are followed with rye or oats. 
Timothy and clover is often sown with rye and oats. This crop is 
eut for hay the first year and allowed to stand another year for 
pasture. Hardly enough fruit or truck is grown to supply home 
demands, but the muck areas are well adapted to trucking, and 
cranberries are grown in favorable sections. 

The principal sources of income are from potatoes and grain. 
Enough dairy farms are maintained to supply local demands, and 
enough hogs are produced to supply méat for the local markets. 

The tillage methods are exceptionally uniform in this région. 
About half the corn land is broken in the fall and half in the spring 
with 2-horse and 3-horse plows. Then, before planting, the land is 
harrowed once with a disk and once with a spike-tooth harrow. 
Practically ail the corn is planted level, and about half the planting 
is in checks 3i feet apart each way, with two stalks to the hill. 
About one-half is planted in drills 3^ feet apart, with one stalk every 
10 or 12 inches in the drill. Most of the planting is done with a 
2-horse 2-row planter, but some farmers in checking plant by hand. 

After planting, the field is gone over with a spike-tooth harrow 
once and with a weeder once. After this most of the cultivating 
is done with a 2-horse 6-shovel cultivator. The 2-horse 8-shovel, 
the 2-horse 10-shovel spring-tooth, and the 5-shovel 1-horse culti- 
vators are used by a few farmers. After going over the field twice 
with the spike-tooth harrow or weeder, usually three cultivations 
are given. 

Practically no cover crops are grown. No commercial fertilizer 
is used. Stable manure is usually applied to the sod land before 
breaking for potatoes. 

The early white dent varieties of corn are principally grown. 

The most prévalent weeds are foxtail, wild buckwheat, ragweed, 
quack-grass, and pigweed. 



FARM PEACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OP CORN. 53 

SURVEYS IN BATES COUNTY, MO. 

Bâtes County is in the extrême western tier of Missouri and fairly 
well represents conditions as found in the corn belt of western Mis- 
souri and eastern Kansas. It is a typical prairie région, with a clay- 
loam soil underlain with a heavier loamy clay subsoil. The land is 
gently rolling, and no drainage is required. The soils of this county 
are very fertile, and the limiting factor in crop production is the 
amount of rainfall. 

This région is fairly prosperous and has the gênerai western spirit. 
Most of the leading roads hâve been improved. Good farmhouses 
and outbuildings are found, and the country appears prosperous to a 
greater extent than it really is. With good seasons the farmers get 
exceptionally good returns, but often the seasons are unfavorable. 

About one-third of the farms in this county are operated by tenants, 
mostly for cash rent. The farms visitée! average 184.8 acres, with 
146.8 acres under cultivation. A gênerai rotation of corn two years, 
oats one year, wheat one year, and hay or pasture one or two } 7 ears is 
practiced on most farms. Very little truck or fruit is grown, and 
wheat is the principal crop sold from the farms. Cattle and hogs 
are extensively raised, and practically ail crops other than wheat are 
fed on the f arm. 

In preparing land for corn the pasture or hay sod is usually plowed 
in the fall with a 4-horse gang or a 3-horse sulky plow. In the spring 
this land is harrowed once each with a disk and spike-tooth harrow, 
and if cloddy it is often rolled (Table XXV) . When corn follows corn 
the land is not broken until spring. It is first harrowed with a disk 
harrow, then plowed shallow (about 3 inches) with the 4-horse gang or 
3-horse sulky plow and harrowed once or twice with the spike-tooth 
harrow. The corn is generally checked and planted level in rows 
3^ feet apart each way, alternating the hills with two and three 
grains. About three weeks after planting, the corn is harrowed with 
a 4-horse spike-tooth harrow. Some farmers harrow just as the corn 
cornes up and again one week later. 

Practically ail the cultivating is done with 2-horse G-shovel culti- 
vators (3-inch shovels). Usually three or four cultivations are given 
in alternate directions. No cover crops are grown, but organic 
matter is supplied by stable manure and hay sod. No commercial 
fertilizer is used, but barnyard and stable manure. is often applied 
broadeast to the corn land before planting. Both white and yellow 
dent varieties of corn are grown, but the white varieties predominate. 

The most prévalent weeds are crab-grass, foxtail, bull nettle, 
cocklebur, smartweed, morning-glory, and pigweed. 



54 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Table XXV. — Tillage practices icith cor» in Bâtes County, Mo., showing depth 
of plowing, implements used in order of use, numbcr of Urnes each is used, 
and normal i/ield of the crop. 

[In columns 3 to 5 and 7 to 11 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the severa] 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





fi 

C 

'% 
o 

o 

Q 


Tillage af ter plowing 
and before planting. 


Tillage after planting. 


si 
a 

03 




Harrow. 


~o 


G 

3 

o 


o 

H 
M 

C3 

O 
O 

'H. 

m 




a? 
o 


2-horse culti- 
vator. 


Total cuit i- 
vations. 


Farm No. 


À 

o 
o 

i 

M 
'S 

m 


SA 

5 


"3 
o 


o 

-r 


-3 

fcjo 


h 

u g 

a p 
A* 

O 


3 


<^ 

H 


S 

O 


1 


2 


a 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


15 


1 


5 

7 

5 

6 

6 

5 

6 

8 

6 

4 

4.V 

6 

n 

7" 
6 
5 
7 
6 
6 
5 
6 
6 
6 
5 
6 


1,2 

1,2 

1,2 
2 
ï 
2 

1,2 

3,4 
1,2,3 

1,2 
2 

1,2 
2 
2 

1,2 
1 

1,2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
2 
3 

1,2 
2 






2 
2 
2 
2 
1 
2 
3 
4 
3 
2 

3 
3 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
2 
3 
2 

3 






1 


2,3,4 

2 to 5 
1.2,3 

3 to6 

1 to4 
3 to6 
3,4,5 

2 to6 
1 to 4 
3,4,5 
2,3,4 
2,3,4 
2,3,4 

3 
2,3,4 

1 to5 
3to6 
2to5 

3,4 

2 to6 


«4 


1 
1 

"2" 


3 

4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
5 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
3 
5 
4 
4 
4 
5 
4 
3 
3 
4 
3 


4 
5 
4 
6 

4 
6 
5 
6 
4 
5 
4 
4 
4 
6 
4 
5 
6 
5 
4 
6 
5 
4 
4 
5 
6 


25 


•> 






1 




35 


3 










25 


4 


1 




1 


2 




25 


5 


25 


6 


1 
1,2 


3 


1,2 

1,2 

1 








2 
2 
1 


12§ 
20 


7 






H 






40 


9 






30 


10 






1,2 
1 

1 

1 

1,2 

1 






4,5,6 


2 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 


25 


11 


1 

1 

1 


3 
3 






25 


12 






25 


13 






40 


14 






28 


15 






30 


16 


2 








25 


17 


1,2 
1 






1,2 

2to5 


2 

1 

.... 

1 
1 
1 
1 
3 


30 


18 


1 

1,2 

1 

1 

1 

1,2 








30 


19 






40 


20 


1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1,3 






35 


21 






37 


22 






2,3,4 
2,3,4 
2 t9 5 
4,5,6 


35 


23 






40 


24 






25 


25 


1 


3 




2 


25 


Farms using per cent. . 


5.9 


100 


5o 


16 


2.3* 


76 


4 


8 


96 


16 


80 








3 7 


4.8 


29.3 

























« Disk cultivator. 
SURVEYS IN ALEXANDER COUNTY, N. C. 

The soil around Taylorsville, N. C, where the tillage records 
(Table XXVI) for Alexander County were taken, is mostly a red 
sandy clay loam with a very stiff red-clay subsoil. This région is 
very rolling and in sorae places the topsoil lias been washed away 
imtil only the clay is left. No tiling is necessary hère, but numerous 
surface ditches and terraces are required to control the surface water. 
Few of the country roads hâve been macadamized, and during un- 
favorable weather hauling is very difficult. 

Less than half of the available land is under cultivation. The 
cultivated fields being small and irregular in shape, 1-horse culti- 
vators are principally used. A gênerai type of farming is practiced 
on most farms. Very little labor is hired, because most of the farms 
are worked by the owners. 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



55 



Table XXVI. — Tillage practices with corn in Alexander County, N. C, showing 
depth of plowing, implements used in order <>f use, number of Unies each is 
used, and normal yiéld of the crop. 

|In columns 4, 5, and 7 to 11 the figures show the order in whieh the implement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





03 

| 

tac 

o 

o 
■g 

a, 

CD 

fi 


Tillage after plowing 
and before planting. 


Tillage after planting. 






a 
o 

05 *"" 
M 

O 

fi 


Harrow. 


3 

o 

is 
3 


o 

C3 

O 

O 

aS 

OQ 


C'ultivator. 


Total culti- 
vât ions. 


3 

g, 

c 


Farm No. 


m' 
fi 


o 

o 

t 

'& 
w 


1-horse. 


2-horse. 


o5 
o, • 

PS 
"o 

et 

p o 

03 


ê 
o> 

a 

05 

a 

O 


t.: 

.s 

o 

< 


O) 




'3 
o 

■S 

■4, 


'03 

O 

ci 


O 

■9 

ni 


o 
■i 


2 

'Pi 

"03 

a 

o 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


1 


8 
8 

6 
5 

7 

5 

6 

8 

6 

6 

54 

5" 

8 


1 
1 




1 

1 

1.2 

1 

2 


1 
1 
2 
1 
2 

2 
2 


1 
1 
1 
2 


lto4 
1,2,3 

1 


5to8 
4to7 
lto4 
2to5 








4 
3 


4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
4 
6 
4 
4 
3 
4 
4 
4 
5 


8 

4 
5 
3 
5 

8 
4 
6 
3 

4 
4 
4 
G 


28 


2 








15 


3 








25 


4 


1 
1 


1 








1 


20 


5... 


1,2,3 






25 


6 


1 
1/2 

1,2 


2to5 
1,3,4 






1 


15 


7 




1,2 
1,2 


3to8 
2 






2 


50 


8 










20 


9 


1 






3toG 


2 


55 


10 






1,2,3 






20 


11 






1 
1 
1 
2 




lto4 






20 


12 






al 


1,3.4 
1,3,4 
2to6 


2 
2 






15 


13 












15 


14 




1 






1 


30 












Farms using, per cent 


6 


35.7 


14.3 


78.6 


i.T 


50.0 


71.4 


35.7 


7.1 


7.1 


50.0 


4.Î 


s.i 


' 25." 2 

























« Weeder. 



Tins land when properly treated is very productive, bat when 
organic matter is not supplied the crop yields are low. No set rota- 
tions are followed, but an intertilled crop is usually followed by 
small grain, and the smali-grain crops are followed by corn or cot- 
ton. Tobacco is grown on a few farms, but not so extensively as it 
was a few years ago. The leading money crop is cotton. Enough 
corn, wheat, and oats are grown for home use, and some wheat is sold. 
Considérable rye is grown for grain and also for green feed in the 
early spring. Very little fruit or truck is grown except for local 
demands, and few cattle or hogs are kept. 

In preparing land for corn, about half the plowing is done in the 
fall with a 2-horse plow. In the spring, before planting, this fall- 
plowed land is rebroken with a 1-horse plow and the rest is broken 
with the 2-horse plow. After plowing, very little préparation is 
given before planting. Usually the land is harrowed once or twice 
with a spike-tooth harrow. A few f armers use a disk harrow. The 
corn is planted level and in drills -i feet apart, with one stalk every 
2 feet in the drill. Most of the planting is done by hand. A few 
farmers use a 1-horse planter. 



5G BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

AVhen the corn is up the field is usually harrowed once or twice 
with a spike-tooth harrow. After this most of the cultivating is 
clone with a 1-horse 4-shovel cultivator. The 1-horse 2-shovel culti- 
vators are frequently used and occasionally 2-horse 6 and 8 shovel 
cultivators are found. Four or five workings are usually given. 

Considérable hand labor is used in chopping ont weeds and replant- 
ing. Practically ail the corn grown is of the white dent varieties. A 
few farmers grow crimson clover .as a winter cover crop with good 
results. 

Commercial fertilizer is used only in small quantifies and com- 
paratively little stable manure is produced. The most prévalent 
weeds are crab-grass, sheep sorrel, Spanish needle, cocklebur, and 
ragweed. 

SURVEYS IN OKLAHOMA COUNTY, OKLA. 

The tillage records for Oklahoma (Table XXVII) were taken in 
the prairie section of northwestern Oklahom? County, just west of 
Edmond. 

The county is divided into sections, and practically every section 
line is a public road. Through the prairie section thèse roads are in 
fair condition ail the year except during very wet weather. 

Most of the farms are worked by the owners. As a rule the farmers 
hâve exceptionally good houses and outbuildings. 

The soil consists of a dark silt loam 10 to 20 inches deep, which 
grades into a heavier silty clay subsoil. The subsoil is almost im- 
pervious and affords poor drainage conditions. It is hard for the 
crop roots to penetrate this subsoil, and the crops suffer badly during 
either wet or dry weather. The country is rolling enough to afford 
goocl natural drainage, but not steep enough to interfère with the 
use of improved machinery. There is very little timber in this 
section, and practically ail the land is in cultivation or grass. The 
farms are divided into large uniform fields of convenient shape. 

This is a comparatively new section, and the settlers came from 
ail parts of the country and brought with them the methods which 
were employée! in the locality from which they came, so the Systems 
followecl are not uniform. 

Very little fruit or truck is grown. A large part of the land is 
in pasture, and cattle and hogs are extensively raisecl. Xo set rota- 
tions are practiced. The principal crops grown are corn, wheat, 
oats, cotton, alfalfa, kafir, and milo. Unless seasons are very favor- 
able cotton does not yield well, but it is one of the principal money 
crops. Alfalfa is grown mostby on the bottom lands near streams. 
A few farmers are growing it with success by irrigation. This crop 
is often utilized in hog pastures. 



FARM PEACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



57 



Table XXVII. — Tillage practices with corn in Oklahoma County, Okla., showing 
depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, numoer of Unies eàch is 
used, and normal yield of the crop. 

[In colunins 4 to 7 and 9 to 15 the figures show the order in which the iraplement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





? 
,3 

o 

.a 

.3 
$ 

o 
"S 

a 

œ 
fi 


Tillage after plowing and 
before planting. 


Tillage after planting. 


,-; 




d 

o 

& 

03 
■d 

•d 

-d 

m 


Harrow 


"S 

(H 

% 
o 


É 

o 
o 

g . 

z. - 
= 

-- 

1 

2 


.g 
S 
o 

is 
3 


$■ 

o 

t~ 
(S 

O 

o 

<£> 

■g 

'E. 


Cultivator. 


S 

o 

03 

a 

.a 

o 


Total culti- 
vations. 


■S 

a 

9, 


Farm No. 


o 
o 

i 
a 

03 


5 


2-horse. 


o 

O 


4) 

■d 

O) 

o, . 

isfe 

o 

ètî: 

o o 

Eh 

1 

w 


"S 

a 

f 

in 

O 


.a 

o 

is 
3 


03 
P. 




3 


o 


% 
o 


5 


-d 

"S 
"p. 

a 

O 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


1 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


1 




1 






1 


""% 

2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 
2 
.... 

2 


1 
2 
2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
2 

1 

2 
1 

2 


1 


1,2 


2,3,4 

3 

2,3 

2,3,4 
3 

2,3 


3,4 










4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
2 
4 
4 
3 
4 
3 
4 
3 
4 
3 
4 
2 
2 
6 


4 
4 
3 
4 
4 
3 


20 


2 


4 
6 
5 
6 
6 
4 
5 


1 
1 
1 
1,2 
1 
1 
1 










1 


10 


3 






4 


1,2 






10 


4 






1 

1 

1 
1 


1,2 

1,2,3 

1,2,3 
1,2,3 






1 
1 


12 


5 












20 


6 














1J5 


7 






4 










4 an 


8 












1 


3 

4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
5 
3 
4 
3 
4 
3 
4 


30 


9 






4 
4 








35 


10 




















20 


11 


5 

6 
6 

7 
6 




1 






2, 3, 4 






1 


16 


12 


•1 


2 






1,2,3 


4 




10 


13 






3 


1,2 
1,2 


3 
4,5 

1,2,3 

2,3,4 

1,2,3 

3 

2,3 

3,4 






25 


14 




1 














1 


30 


15 














r.5 


16 










1 




1 














17 






















20 


18 


8 

4 


1 


1 






2 


1 

1,2 

1 


1,2 




4 








40 


19 




1 






1 

2 
1 


25 


20 
















40 


21 


6 




1 


2 






2,3,4 




5 


6,7 


45 












Farms us- 
ing . . . per 

cent 

Average 


'h', h 


9.5 


52.4 


9.514.3 66.7 
............ 


TA 


42.8 


42.8 


66.7 


33.3 


14.3 


9.5 


4.8 


42.9 


3." 4 


'é.'9 


23.9 



The methods of cultivating corn are quite variable, but in regard 
to crop yields, soil fertility and tillage methods are minor factors as 
compared to the amount of rainfall during the growing season. A 
i'ew farmers plow the corn land in the fall and then rebreak in the 
spring just before planting. The common practice is to break the 
land level, harrow with a spike-tooth harrow, and lay off the rows 
with a double moldboard plow commonly known as a lister or 
middle buster, which plows out a broad, deep furrow, throwing the 
dirt to either side. The corn is planted in the bottom of this furrow. 

Most farmers use the combination planter and lister, which is the 
shovel plow and planter combined. This implement plows out the 
furrow and plants the corn at one opération. Frequently corn is 
planted with this implement without any previous préparation of 



58 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



the land. Especially is this true when corn follows corn or cotton. 
For such work a 3-horse or 4-horse team is used and the plow em- 
ployed lias a broad shovel which breaks practically ail the row. No 
différence in the yield is noted from the différent methods of prepar- 
ing the land. About 90 per cent of the corn is listed and planted in 
drills 3 to 3-|- feet apart with one stalk every 18 inches in the drill. 
After planting, a spike-tooth harrow is frequently used just as 
the corn cornes up. A disk cultivator especially designed for culti- 
vating listed corn is extensively used for the first cultivation. The 
1-row cultivator of this type (fig. 36) is constructed on a sied which 
straddles the corn row and protects the corn plants from being cov- 

ered with dirt from the disk cul- 
tivators which run on either side 
of the row. The 2-horse 4 and 
6 shovel cultivators and disk cul- 
tivators are used for the later 
cultivations. A few farms use 
a 1-horse 5-shovel cultivator. 
Usually three or four cultiva- 
tions are given. After the corn 
gets too high to cultivate, some 
farmers will, with one horse, 
drag a mowing-machine wheel 
between the rows, which destroys 
nearly ail the small weeds and 
forms a shallow dust mulch. 

Practically no cover crops are 
grown and no commercial fer- 
tilizer is used. 

The yellow dent varieties of 
corn are principal ly grown. 
The most prévalent weeds are 
smartweed, crab-grass, ragweed, bull nettle, artichoke, and Johnson 
grass. 

SURVEYS IN PIKE COUNTY, ALA. 

The tillage records for Alabama (Table XXVIII) were taken in 
Pike County near Troy. The soil in this région is of a sandy or 
sandy-loam type, usually dark red in color, and underlain with a red- 
dish sand-clay subsoil. The land is very irregular and in some 
places extremely rolling. Drainage is principally obtained by means 
of numerous terraces, which divide the fields into small. irregular- 
shaped areas. Thèse terraces are usually about 25 yards apart and 
are so constructed that they can not be worked over. On most of 
them Bermuda grass is grown to prevent érosion. 




Fig. 36. — A type of 2-horse disk cultivator 
used in Oklahoma and western Kansas 
for cultivating listed corn. 



FARM PKACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 



59 



Table XXVIII. — Tillage practices with corn in Pike County, Ala., showing 
depth of plowing, implements used in orcler of use, number of Unies each is 
used, and normal yield of the erop. 

[In columns 4,5, and 7 to 11 the figures show the order in whieh the implement was used on the several 
farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 





â 

o 

a 

R 

'is 

o 

G. 

*o 

■g 

HT 
fi 


Tillage after 

plowing and 

before planting. 


Tillage after planting. 


a 

o 

o 
C3 


Farm No. 


ri 

o 
,Q 
ci 

T} 

a> 
T3 
T3 

P 


Rows 

run 

with— 


CX 

•S 

ë 


1-horse plow. 


Cultivator. 


© 

o 


Total cult.i- 
vations. 






G . 
O £ 

*° — 
J. p. 

3 
« 


se 

.g 
'3 

EH 


> 
o 


es 

o 

œ o 

o 


! 

o 

A 


£ 

II 
I 2 

O ï- 


A 

"H, 

^ g 
O 


I 
J4 
o 

< 


a 
P. 

"S 
"S 

a 

M 

O 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


lô 


1 


10 

7 

6 
10 
10 
10 

6 

9 

fi 
10 

5 

4 

5 

8 

6 

7 

4i 

3" 

5 

5 

4 




1 
.... 


.... 

2 


1 
1 


2 


1 
2 






3 

3,4,5 

2,3,5 

3,5 

4 

3,5 

3,5 

4,6,7 

3,5 

2,3,4 

4 

3,4 

2 

2,4 

3,5 

3,5,6 

2 

2,4 

3,5,6 

5 

2,4 




3 

5 
6 
5 
4 
5 
5 
7 
5 
4 
4 
4 
3 
4 
5 
6 
4 
4 
6 
5 
4 


3 
5 
6 
5 
4 
5 
5 
7 
5 
4 
4 
4 
3 
4 
5 
6 
4 
4 
6 
5 
4 


30 


2 


1 
1,4,6 




25 


3 


25 


4 


1,4 
3 


2,3 
2 


18 


5 








1 




33 


6 


1 




1 


1,4 


2 

ï 




40 


7 




2,4 

1,2,3,5 

2,4 

1 






20 


8 


1 




1 




20 


9 


1 




20 


10 




1 






12 


11 




1 




1,2,3 




20 


12 




1 


1 


1 
1,3 
1,3 

4 
2,4 
1,3 
1,3 
2,4 
2,3 
1,3 


2 


15 


13 






20 


14 


1 

1 
1 




1 

1 
1 










15 




1 
1 
4 


2 


is 


16 




17 




18 








19 








1 
4 








20 




1 
1 


1 

1 


1 




31 


21 
















Farms using percent.. 


0.7 


80.9 


33. 3 23. 8 

l 


n fi 


85.7 


47.6 


38.1 


4.8 


100 











Average 


4.7 


4.7 


23.1 






"'"'["" 



















Only a few of the leading roads hâve been macadamized, and during 
wet weather hauling is difficult. Owing to the mild winters and the 
scarcity of cattle, very cheap barns and outbuildings are found on 
most farms. Because of so many cheap tenant houses and the lack 
of good outbuildings, the country does not look prosperous, but the 
landowners hâve good dwelling houses and appear well to do. 

Some of the farms are operated by the owners with hired labor, 
but most of the farming is by the tenant system, in which the land- 
lord furnishes ail supplies and supervises the work. The land is 
often owned in large tracts and operated by a number of tenants, each 
tenant cultivating about 25 acres. 

No gênerai rotation is practiced. The principal crops are corn 
and cotton, with about two-thirds of the land in cotton. Some oats 
are grown on most farms. In the southwestern part of the county, 
considérable sugar cane is grown. Peanuts and velvet beans are 



60 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 




Fig. 37. — A 1-horse 1-shovel plow with 
cotton sweep attached, used to -cultivate 
corn in the Southern States. At the top 
is a broad shovel or solid sweep : below, 
a narrow shovel, used in making furrows 
for planting. 



planted between the corn rows at the last cultivation. Thèse are 
either harvested or pastured by cattle and hogs after the corn is 
gathered. By this means a few cattle and hogs are grown. A good 
part of the land is pasture, but the native grasses afford poor grazing. 
Little fruit or truck is grown, and the farm income is principally 
from cotton. 

Under the tenant System hère each tenant is usually given one 

mule and as much land as this 
mule can cultivate, so that prac- 
tically ail the cultivation is with 
1-horse implements. In break- 
ing the land for corn, sometimes 
an extra mule is furnished and 
the land is broken with a 2-horse 
plow, but the gênerai practice is 
to break the land with a 1-horse 
plow, and instead of flat break- 
ing it is thrown into ridges or 
beds the width apart the corn 
rows are to be. Sometimes a narrow strip of land is left between 
thèse ridges. This strip is plowed ont with a 1-shovel plow (fig. 37) 
running very deep, and the corn is then planted in the furrow. 

A few farmers break the land level and then lay off the rows with 
a double moldboard plow known as a lister, or middle buster, which 
throws the dirt to each side and leaves a broad, deep furrow. The 
corn is planted in the bottom of this furrow. After plowing, the 
land is usually given no further 
préparation before planting. 

The corn is planted in drills 
from 5 to G feet apart, with one 
or two stalks eveiy 2 feet in the 
drill, and either between beds or 
in the bottom of a furrow. After 
the corn is up, a 1-horse spike- 
tooth cultivator (fig. 38) is often FlG 38 _ A lmiloia6 spi ke-tooth cuitivator, 

USed for the first Cultivation, but or side harrow, used in the rolling areas 
,., -, i î of Alabama and Mississippi. 

more often a 1-horse turning plow 

or a 1-horse 1-shovel plow, known as a bull tongue, is used. One 
furrow is run on either side of the row, throwing the dirt toward the 
middle of the row and away from the corn, leaving the corn on a 
narrow ridge. Later, the middle is plowed ont with the turning 
plow, throwing the dirt toward the corn. This cultivation tears down 
the ridge and leaves the land almost level. After this. the cultivating 
is done with broad sweeps covering ail the middle with three or four 




FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OP CORN". 61 

fiirrows. Three to six cultivations are usually given, depending 
on the amount of rainfall and the weed growth. The white dent 
varieties of corn are almost exclusively grown. 

Commercial fertilizer is extensively used for ail crops, but little 
stable manure is produced. Practically no cover crops are grown, 
but winter weeds, principally life everlasting (cudweed), often make 
considérable growth during the fall and winter months, which make 
winter cover crops not so necessary. 

The most prévalent weeds are life everlasting, Johnson grass, 
purslane, cocklebur, and crab-grass. 

SURVEYS IN HOLMES COUNTY, MISS. 

The tillage records for Mississippi (Table XXIX) were taken in 
Holmes County, mostly around Lexington. The upland soils are 
of a silt-loam type, dark yellow in color, and from 6 to 10 inches 
deep. The subsoil is of a heavier silt loam, containing more clay and 
clarker in color. Along the streams the bottom lands are much 
heavier and more level land is found, but the uplands are very roll- 
ing and erode easily. Practically none of the land is tile drained 
and very few surface ditches are found. Only about one-half the 
land is cultivated, and after a field has been depleted of its fertility 
by continuons cropping and érosion it is abandoned and other land 
cleared. 

Only a few of the roads hâve been macadamized, and hauling is 
very difficult during bad weather. The land is mostly owned in large 
tracts or plantations and is worked by negro tenants under the 
supervision of the owner. The landowners hâve good houses and 
appear prosperous, but the tenant houses and the lack of good out- 
buildings detract from the prosperous appearance of the country. 

The principal crops grown are corn and cotton, with some oats for 
hay. In the southwestern part of the county sugar cane is exten- 
sively grown. Truck crops, especially strawberries and cabbage, are 
much grown in the eastern part of the county and shipped to the 
Chicago market. Near Lexington very little truck or fruit is grown. 
Considérable land is in native grass, which furnishes pasture for a 
good part of the year, and a few cattle and hogs are kept. It is a 
common practice to sow cowpeas broadcast between the corn rows 
at the last cultivation and after the corn is gathered pasture them 
oiï with cattle and hogs. The principal money crop is cotton, but 
since the boll weevil has reached this section more com and less cot- 
ton are grown. No rotations are practiced, and the land is usually 
kept in corn or cotton until the crop yields become so low that its 
cultivation is not profitable. 



62 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. 



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d 

03 




- 




OS OO 1- »0 CO t^ GC CT. C ~H O) 00 T 


15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

Farms usinç per cent. . 

Average 



FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OP CORN. 63 

On account of the tenant System employée! and the rolling condi- 
tion of the land, most of the cultivating is done with 1-horse imple- 
ments. In preparing the land for corn, a disk harrow is often run 
over the field some time during the winter to chop up the old cotton 
or corn stalks. Most of the breaking is done in the spring, but a few 
farmers break the land in the fall and then rebreak in the spring. 
Instead of " flat breaking,"' practically ail the land as broken is made 
into beds or ridges the width apart the corn rows are to be. A good 
part of this breaking is done with 1-horse plows, but during the last 
few years 2-horse plows hâve corne into more gênerai use and the 
land is broken deeper than formerly. After breaking, thèse ridges 
are usually harrowed down almost level with a spike-tooth or disk 
harrow before planting. Often a bull tongue or subsoil plow is used 
to run ofï the rows and a very deep furrow plowed out, in which the 
corn is planted. On the bottom lands the corn is planted on the beds, 
but on the uplands it is planted 
between the beds. Practically ail 
the planting is in drills 3| to 4 
feet apart, with one stalk every 
2 feet in the drill. 

After planting, the methods of 
cultivating corn are not very uni- 
form. Until récent years, the 1- 
horse turning plows and the cot- 
ton sweeps were practically the 
only cultivators used, but during 

,, , » £ Fig. 39. — A spring-tooth 1-horse or "geewhiz" 

the past few years more Surface cu ,t iva tor, used in parts of Alabania and 

cultivation lias been practiced. Mississippi. 

After the corn is up, a few farmers use a 2-horse harrow for the 
first cultivation, but more often 1-horse spring-tooth cultivators (fig. 
39) are used, giving one or two furrows to the middle. The spike- 
tooth cultivator is used more generally than any other implement in 
this section. The 1-horse turning plows and the 1-horse 1-shovel 
plows are often used to plow down the middles and level up the rows. 
For the last cultivation a cotton sweep is often used. Very few 
2-horse cultivators are found. 

Practically no cover crops are grown, and very little commercial 
fertilizer is used. Very little stable manure is produced because the 
cattle stay in the field during most of the year. 

The white dent varieties of corn are principally grown. 

The most prévalent weeds are crab-grass, bindweed, Bermuda 
grass, Johnson grass, and cocklebur. 

SURVEYS IN RUSSELL COUNTY, KANS. 

Russell County is located in the central-western part of Kansas 
and is primarily a wheat-producing section. This is a typical prairie 




64 



BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. 



région, of broad, gently sloping ridges and level valleys. No drain- 
age is required. Some parts of this area are extremely rolling and 
rugged. Thèse lands are used for grazing purposes. 

The country lias not yet been fully developed. Only a few of 
the principal roads hâve been improved. On account of the extra 
large size of the farms the country is thinly populated, which makes 
it impraeticable to hâve schools and church.es conveniently near. 
PracticaUy no timber is grown and the farmhouses and barns are 
built of a convenient soft native stone, which hardens when exposed 
to the air. The absence of trees around the farm homes gives to the 
country a rather desolate appearance. Ail the farm lands are fenced, 
the fence posts being of stone. 

Table XXX. — Tillage practices ivith corn in Russell County, Kans., showing 
depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of Urnes each is 
used. and normal yield of the crop. 



[In columns 3 to 8 the figures show the order in 
1 = first working or cultivation 


which the implement was used on the several farms 
2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] 


as, 




'Pillage after planting." 






a 
a 

S 
tu 

"i 
o 

p. 

o 

p. 

9 

fi 


s 
£ 

o 

o 

9 

'S 

X 


M 

03 
H 

-3 

M 
d 


Cultivator. 


Total cultivations. 


3 




Lister. 2-horse. 


o 

o 

w 


"S 
S 

a 

9 

.g 

k. 
9 
fi 

O 


.S 

M 

o 

< 


9 

O 

C3 


Farm No. 


9 

O 

ci) 


o 
o 

5 


"3 
> 
o 
fi 

■à 


o 


9 
P. 

2 

"3 

E 
b~ 

o 
Z 


1 


o 


3 4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


!> 


10 


11 


12 


1 


3 

6 
5 
8 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
5 
3 
5 
7 
5 
5 
6 
4 
4 
5 
5 
6 
6 
7 




1.2 






3 




2 
1 
1 


1 
1 




1 



1 
1 



1 
1 
1 
1 



1 







3 
3 
3 
2 
4 
3 
3 
2 
3 
4 
4 
3 
4 
3 
4 
4 
3 
2 
3 
3 
3 
3 
5 
3 
3 


3 
3 

3 

5 
3 
4 
3 
3 
4 
5 
3 
5 
4 
4 
."> 
4 
3 
4 
3 
4 
3 
5 
3 
3 


10 


2 




1.2 
1.3 
1.3 
2.3 

1,2 


3 
5 


31 


3 


2,4 
1 






20 


4 


2 




10 


5 


4,5 

3 

2,3.4 




20 


li 






10 




1 
2 






25 


8 






1.3 
1.2 
1.2 
1.3 
1.2 
2.3 
2.3 

1 
3,4 
1,3 
1.3 
2,3 
1.2 

2 

1.2 

1,2.3 

1,2 

1,2 


15 


9 






3 


3,4 

1 . •"> 

3 

4,5 

4 

2, 3. 4 

5 


25 


10 




25 


11 


2 






20 


12 






20 


13 


1 

1 






20 


14 






20 


15 






20 


16 


2 

2 

1 




1 


25 


17 


25 


18 


2 




is 


19 


3.4 


4 
3 

3 

4.5 

3 

3 


30 


20 






20 


21 


1 






20 


22 






20 


23 








20 


24 








20 


25 








20 
















44 


8 


8 


92 


32 


50 


52 








Average 


5J 


3.2 


3.8 


20.4 



















a No tillage was given after plowing and belore planting. 

Xo gênerai rotations are practiced. Wheat is the principal money 
crop. and on many farms it is the only crop grown. Corn, kafir, and 



FAEM PK4 JTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COEN. 



65 



cane are grown only on the bottom lands. In collecting the data 
shown in Table XXX only those farms which grow corn were 
visited. Some alfalfa is grown on the bottom lands and in favor- 
able seasons does well. 

Most of the land is farmed by the owners, or the fariner may own a 
farm and rent other land in addition. The average size of the farms 
visited in this county is 655 acres, with 331 acres under cultivation. 
Thèse farms are somewhat larger than the average for this région. 
The land in this section is very fertile and productive, and the limit- 
ing factor in crop yields is the amount of rainfall. 

The bottom-land farmers, because they can grow forage crops, 
keep more cattle and swine than the upland farmers, and their 
sources of farm income are cattle, hogs, and wheat. For the upland 
farms the income is principally from wheat. Xot enough fruit or 
truck is grown to supply home demands. 

The tillage methods with corn hère are exceptionally unif orm 
and represent the methods employed throughout the semiarid région 
of western Kansas and western 
Nebraska. Corn usually follows 
corn or kafir. The land is gen- 
erally harrowed in the spring 
with a disk harrow, and without 
plowing or further préparation 
corn is planted with a 4-horse 
combination lister and planter. 
This planter has a double mold- 
board and usually runs about 5 
inches deep, throwing the dirt 
in both directions, and the corn 
is planted in the bottom of this 
furrow. The rows are usually 
3| feet apart, with one stalk 
every 18 or 20 inches in the 
drill. In opening up this furrow most of the land is broken, but there 
is a strip directly between the rows which is not plowed. This strip 
is broken up during the cultivation. 

After the corn is up, the first cultivation is most often given with 
a 4-horse 2-row disk cultivator designed for cultivating listed corn. 
At this cultivation the dirt is thrown away from the corn and the 
ridges made higher. Thèse ridges are next harrowed with a ^pike- 
tooth harrow or plank drag and partly torn down. The next culti- 
vation is given with the same 1-horse 2-row cultivator, with the disks 
adjusted so as to throw dirt to the corn, tearing down the ridges 
between the rows. The next and last cultivation is usually given 




Fig. 40. — A 2-horse 4-shovel cultivator with 
sweeps attachée! instead of shovels. This 
implement is extensively used in cultivat- 
ing corn in Texas and Oklahoma. 



66 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

with a 2-horse 4-shovel or 6-shovel cultivator (fig. 40), and this 
leaves the land about level. 

No cover crops are grown and no commercial fertilizers used. Cat- 
tle spend most of their time in the pastures, so little mamire is saved. 

The yellow, white, and red varieties of dent corn are grown. 

The principal weeds of this section are cocklebur, Russian thistle. 
pigweed, bindweed, sand bur, and sunflower. 



PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF ARGICULTURE RELAT- 
ING TO THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 

AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. 

The Germination of Seed Corn. (Farmers' Bulletin 253.) 

Harvesting and Storing Corn. (Farmers' Bulletin 313.) 

A More Profitable Corn-Planting Method. (Farmers' Bulletin 400.) 

Corn Cultivation. (Farmers' Bulletin 414.) 

Seed Corn. (Farmers' Bulletin 415.) 

How to Grow an Acre of Corn. (Farmers' Bulletin 537.) 

How to Manage a Corn Crop in Kentucky and West Virginia. (Farmers' Bul- 
letin 546. ) 

Pop Corn for the Home. (Farmers' Bulletin 553.) 

Pop Corn for the Market. (Farmers' Bulletin 554.) 

School Lessons on Corn. (Farmers' Bulletin 617.) 

Spécial Contests for Corn-Club Work. (Bureau of Plant Industry Circulai- 
104.) 

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. 

Corn Culture in the South. ( Farmers' Bulletin 81. ) Price, 5 cents. 
Importance of Broad Breeding in Corn. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 

141, Pt. 4. ) Price, 5 cents. 
New Type of Indian Corn from China. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 

161. ) Price, 10 cents. 
Cros,s Breeding Corn. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 218.) Price, 10 

cents. 

67 



ADDITIOXAL COPIES 

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM 

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS 

GOVERNMENT PRINTLNG OFFICE 

WASHINGTON, D. C. 

AT 

15 CENTS PEIt COPY 






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